Complications
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==Overview==
==Overview==
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The natural history of Enterovirus 68 is poorly understood due to scarcity of data. The virus may produce a spectrum of clinical disease, ranging from an asymptomatic course to severe respiratory symptoms necessitating hospitalization. Prognosis is generally good, but few reports of fatalities have been documented. Approximately 16-21% of patients suffer from enterovirus 68-associated complications. Common complications, such as superimposed infections and severe [[pneumonia]] requiring mechanical ventilation, are more likely to occur among patients with a history of pulmonary
disease
.
+
The natural history of Enterovirus 68 is poorly understood due to scarcity of data. The virus may produce a spectrum of clinical disease, ranging from an asymptomatic course to severe respiratory symptoms necessitating hospitalization. Prognosis is generally good, but few reports of fatalities have been documented. Approximately 16-21% of patients suffer from enterovirus 68-associated complications. Common complications, such as superimposed infections and severe [[pneumonia]] requiring mechanical ventilation, are more likely to occur among patients with a history of pulmonary
co-morbidities
.
==Natural History==
==Natural History==
−
*Enterovirus 68 colonizes the respiratory mucosa. It is believed to be transmitted through respiratory droplets and is often detected by nasopharyngeal swabs of patients presenting with respiratory illness. Nonetheless, the incubation period of the virus is unknown.
+
*Enterovirus 68 colonizes the respiratory mucosa. It is believed to be transmitted through respiratory droplets and is often detected by nasopharyngeal
or oral
swabs of patients presenting with respiratory illness. Nonetheless, the incubation period of the virus is unknown.
*The virus has been isolated among patients of all age groups, ranging from 1 month to 72 years. Although 4 to 5-year-old children are believed to be the most susceptible hosts, accounting for approximately 80% of all reported cases, newer reports are currently noting more adult infections.<ref name="pmid21802981">{{cite journal| author=Rahamat-Langendoen J, Riezebos-Brilman A, Borger R, van der Heide R, Brandenburg A, Schölvinck E et al.| title=Upsurge of human enterovirus 68 infections in patients with severe respiratory tract infections. | journal=J Clin Virol | year= 2011 | volume= 52 | issue= 2 | pages= 103-6 | pmid=21802981 | doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2011.06.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21802981 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22694903">{{cite journal| author=Tokarz R, Firth C, Madhi SA, Howie SR, Wu W, Sall AA et al.| title=Worldwide emergence of multiple clades of enterovirus 68. | journal=J Gen Virol | year= 2012 | volume= 93 | issue= Pt 9 | pages= 1952-8 | pmid=22694903 | doi=10.1099/vir.0.043935-0 | pmc=PMC3542132 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22694903 }} </ref><ref name="JacobsonRedd2012">{{cite journal|last1=Jacobson|first1=Lara M.|last2=Redd|first2=John T.|last3=Schneider|first3=Eileen|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Chern|first5=Shur-Wern W.|last6=Oberste|first6=M. Steven|last7=Erdman|first7=Dean D.|last8=Fischer|first8=Gayle E.|last9=Armstrong|first9=Gregory L.|last10=Kodani|first10=Maja|last11=Montoya|first11=Jennifer|last12=Magri|first12=Julie M.|last13=Cheek|first13=James E.|title=Outbreak of Lower Respiratory Tract Illness Associated With Human Enterovirus 68 Among American Indian Children|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=31|issue=3|year=2012|pages=309–312|issn=0891-3668|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3182443eaf}}</ref>
*The virus has been isolated among patients of all age groups, ranging from 1 month to 72 years. Although 4 to 5-year-old children are believed to be the most susceptible hosts, accounting for approximately 80% of all reported cases, newer reports are currently noting more adult infections.<ref name="pmid21802981">{{cite journal| author=Rahamat-Langendoen J, Riezebos-Brilman A, Borger R, van der Heide R, Brandenburg A, Schölvinck E et al.| title=Upsurge of human enterovirus 68 infections in patients with severe respiratory tract infections. | journal=J Clin Virol | year= 2011 | volume= 52 | issue= 2 | pages= 103-6 | pmid=21802981 | doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2011.06.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21802981 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22694903">{{cite journal| author=Tokarz R, Firth C, Madhi SA, Howie SR, Wu W, Sall AA et al.| title=Worldwide emergence of multiple clades of enterovirus 68. | journal=J Gen Virol | year= 2012 | volume= 93 | issue= Pt 9 | pages= 1952-8 | pmid=22694903 | doi=10.1099/vir.0.043935-0 | pmc=PMC3542132 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22694903 }} </ref><ref name="JacobsonRedd2012">{{cite journal|last1=Jacobson|first1=Lara M.|last2=Redd|first2=John T.|last3=Schneider|first3=Eileen|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Chern|first5=Shur-Wern W.|last6=Oberste|first6=M. Steven|last7=Erdman|first7=Dean D.|last8=Fischer|first8=Gayle E.|last9=Armstrong|first9=Gregory L.|last10=Kodani|first10=Maja|last11=Montoya|first11=Jennifer|last12=Magri|first12=Julie M.|last13=Cheek|first13=James E.|title=Outbreak of Lower Respiratory Tract Illness Associated With Human Enterovirus 68 Among American Indian Children|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=31|issue=3|year=2012|pages=309–312|issn=0891-3668|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3182443eaf}}</ref>
+
*The seasonality of enterovirus 68 is uncertain. While some reports describe a peak incidence during the months of August-October, others suggest that enterovirus 68 may have shifted seasonality to autumn into winter.<ref name="pmid22694903">{{cite journal| author=Tokarz R, Firth C, Madhi SA, Howie SR, Wu W, Sall AA et al.| title=Worldwide emergence of multiple clades of enterovirus 68. | journal=J Gen Virol | year= 2012 | volume= 93 | issue= Pt 9 | pages= 1952-8 | pmid=22694903 | doi=10.1099/vir.0.043935-0 | pmc=PMC3542132 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22694903 }} </ref>
+
*The clinical features of the virus are characterized by non-specific signs and symptoms including cough, dyspnea, wheezing, and other symptoms of bronchitis.<ref name="JacobsonRedd2012">{{cite journal|last1=Jacobson|first1=Lara M.|last2=Redd|first2=John T.|last3=Schneider|first3=Eileen|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Chern|first5=Shur-Wern W.|last6=Oberste|first6=M. Steven|last7=Erdman|first7=Dean D.|last8=Fischer|first8=Gayle E.|last9=Armstrong|first9=Gregory L.|last10=Kodani|first10=Maja|last11=Montoya|first11=Jennifer|last12=Magri|first12=Julie M.|last13=Cheek|first13=James E.|title=Outbreak of Lower Respiratory Tract Illness Associated With Human Enterovirus 68 Among American Indian Children|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=31|issue=3|year=2012|pages=309–312|issn=0891-3668|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3182443eaf}}</ref><ref name="LuWo2013">{{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Q.-B.|last2=Wo|first2=Y.|last3=Wang|first3=H.-Y.|last4=Wei|first4=M.-T.|last5=Zhang|first5=L.|last6=Yang|first6=H.|last7=Liu|first7=E.-M.|last8=Li|first8=T.-Y.|last9=Zhao|first9=Z.-T.|last10=Liu|first10=W.|last11=Cao|first11=W.-C.|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 as one of the commonest types of enterovirus found in patients with acute respiratory tract infection in China|journal=Journal of Medical Microbiology|volume=63|issue=Pt_3|year=2013|pages=408–414|issn=0022-2615|doi=10.1099/jmm.0.068247-0}}</ref><ref name="ImamuraSuzuki2014">{{cite journal|last1=Imamura|first1=Tadatsugu|last2=Suzuki|first2=Akira|last3=Lupisan|first3=Socorro|last4=Kamigaki|first4=Taro|last5=Okamoto|first5=Michiko|last6=Roy|first6=Chandra Nath|last7=Olveda|first7=Remigio|last8=Oshitani|first8=Hitoshi|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 in serum from pediatric patients with pneumonia and their clinical outcomes|journal=Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses|volume=8|issue=1|year=2014|pages=21–24|issn=17502640|doi=10.1111/irv.12206}}</ref><ref name="PirallaGirello2014">{{cite journal|last1=Piralla|first1=Antonio|last2=Girello|first2=Alessia|last3=Grignani|first3=Michela|last4=Gozalo-Margüello|first4=Monica|last5=Marchi|first5=Antonietta|last6=Marseglia|first6=Gianluigi|last7=Baldanti|first7=Fausto|title=Phylogenetic characterization of enterovirus 68 strains in patients with respiratory syndromes in Italy|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=86|issue=9|year=2014|pages=1590–1593|issn=01466615|doi=10.1002/jmv.23821}}</ref>
*The clinical features of the virus are characterized by non-specific signs and symptoms including cough, dyspnea, wheezing, and other symptoms of bronchitis.<ref name="JacobsonRedd2012">{{cite journal|last1=Jacobson|first1=Lara M.|last2=Redd|first2=John T.|last3=Schneider|first3=Eileen|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Chern|first5=Shur-Wern W.|last6=Oberste|first6=M. Steven|last7=Erdman|first7=Dean D.|last8=Fischer|first8=Gayle E.|last9=Armstrong|first9=Gregory L.|last10=Kodani|first10=Maja|last11=Montoya|first11=Jennifer|last12=Magri|first12=Julie M.|last13=Cheek|first13=James E.|title=Outbreak of Lower Respiratory Tract Illness Associated With Human Enterovirus 68 Among American Indian Children|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=31|issue=3|year=2012|pages=309–312|issn=0891-3668|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3182443eaf}}</ref><ref name="LuWo2013">{{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Q.-B.|last2=Wo|first2=Y.|last3=Wang|first3=H.-Y.|last4=Wei|first4=M.-T.|last5=Zhang|first5=L.|last6=Yang|first6=H.|last7=Liu|first7=E.-M.|last8=Li|first8=T.-Y.|last9=Zhao|first9=Z.-T.|last10=Liu|first10=W.|last11=Cao|first11=W.-C.|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 as one of the commonest types of enterovirus found in patients with acute respiratory tract infection in China|journal=Journal of Medical Microbiology|volume=63|issue=Pt_3|year=2013|pages=408–414|issn=0022-2615|doi=10.1099/jmm.0.068247-0}}</ref><ref name="ImamuraSuzuki2014">{{cite journal|last1=Imamura|first1=Tadatsugu|last2=Suzuki|first2=Akira|last3=Lupisan|first3=Socorro|last4=Kamigaki|first4=Taro|last5=Okamoto|first5=Michiko|last6=Roy|first6=Chandra Nath|last7=Olveda|first7=Remigio|last8=Oshitani|first8=Hitoshi|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 in serum from pediatric patients with pneumonia and their clinical outcomes|journal=Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses|volume=8|issue=1|year=2014|pages=21–24|issn=17502640|doi=10.1111/irv.12206}}</ref><ref name="PirallaGirello2014">{{cite journal|last1=Piralla|first1=Antonio|last2=Girello|first2=Alessia|last3=Grignani|first3=Michela|last4=Gozalo-Margüello|first4=Monica|last5=Marchi|first5=Antonietta|last6=Marseglia|first6=Gianluigi|last7=Baldanti|first7=Fausto|title=Phylogenetic characterization of enterovirus 68 strains in patients with respiratory syndromes in Italy|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=86|issue=9|year=2014|pages=1590–1593|issn=01466615|doi=10.1002/jmv.23821}}</ref>
*Without treatment, symptoms generally self-resolve within 4-6 days of symptoms onset.
*Without treatment, symptoms generally self-resolve within 4-6 days of symptoms onset.
−
*The disease may progress in the minority of untreated cases to pneumonia, asthma
exacerbations
, and severe respiratory distress. Patients may require hospitalization, oxygen supplementation, or less commonly mechanical ventilation. The majority of patients requiring intensive care hospitalization are those with a history of pulmonary disease, such as asthma, cystic fibrosis, or lung transplantation.<ref name="JacobsonRedd2012">{{cite journal|last1=Jacobson|first1=Lara M.|last2=Redd|first2=John T.|last3=Schneider|first3=Eileen|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Chern|first5=Shur-Wern W.|last6=Oberste|first6=M. Steven|last7=Erdman|first7=Dean D.|last8=Fischer|first8=Gayle E.|last9=Armstrong|first9=Gregory L.|last10=Kodani|first10=Maja|last11=Montoya|first11=Jennifer|last12=Magri|first12=Julie M.|last13=Cheek|first13=James E.|title=Outbreak of Lower Respiratory Tract Illness Associated With Human Enterovirus 68 Among American Indian Children|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=31|issue=3|year=2012|pages=309–312|issn=0891-3668|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3182443eaf}}</ref><ref name="LuWo2013">{{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Q.-B.|last2=Wo|first2=Y.|last3=Wang|first3=H.-Y.|last4=Wei|first4=M.-T.|last5=Zhang|first5=L.|last6=Yang|first6=H.|last7=Liu|first7=E.-M.|last8=Li|first8=T.-Y.|last9=Zhao|first9=Z.-T.|last10=Liu|first10=W.|last11=Cao|first11=W.-C.|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 as one of the commonest types of enterovirus found in patients with acute respiratory tract infection in China|journal=Journal of Medical Microbiology|volume=63|issue=Pt_3|year=2013|pages=408–414|issn=0022-2615|doi=10.1099/jmm.0.068247-0}}</ref><ref name="ImamuraSuzuki2014">{{cite journal|last1=Imamura|first1=Tadatsugu|last2=Suzuki|first2=Akira|last3=Lupisan|first3=Socorro|last4=Kamigaki|first4=Taro|last5=Okamoto|first5=Michiko|last6=Roy|first6=Chandra Nath|last7=Olveda|first7=Remigio|last8=Oshitani|first8=Hitoshi|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 in serum from pediatric patients with pneumonia and their clinical outcomes|journal=Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses|volume=8|issue=1|year=2014|pages=21–24|issn=17502640|doi=10.1111/irv.12206}}</ref><ref name="PirallaGirello2014">{{cite journal|last1=Piralla|first1=Antonio|last2=Girello|first2=Alessia|last3=Grignani|first3=Michela|last4=Gozalo-Margüello|first4=Monica|last5=Marchi|first5=Antonietta|last6=Marseglia|first6=Gianluigi|last7=Baldanti|first7=Fausto|title=Phylogenetic characterization of enterovirus 68 strains in patients with respiratory syndromes in Italy|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=86|issue=9|year=2014|pages=1590–1593|issn=01466615|doi=10.1002/jmv.23821}}</ref>
+
*The disease may progress in the minority of untreated cases to pneumonia, asthma
exacerbation
, and severe respiratory distress. Patients may require hospitalization, oxygen supplementation, or less commonly mechanical ventilation. The majority of patients requiring intensive care hospitalization are those with a history of pulmonary disease, such as asthma, cystic fibrosis, or lung transplantation.<ref name="JacobsonRedd2012">{{cite journal|last1=Jacobson|first1=Lara M.|last2=Redd|first2=John T.|last3=Schneider|first3=Eileen|last4=Lu|first4=Xiaoyan|last5=Chern|first5=Shur-Wern W.|last6=Oberste|first6=M. Steven|last7=Erdman|first7=Dean D.|last8=Fischer|first8=Gayle E.|last9=Armstrong|first9=Gregory L.|last10=Kodani|first10=Maja|last11=Montoya|first11=Jennifer|last12=Magri|first12=Julie M.|last13=Cheek|first13=James E.|title=Outbreak of Lower Respiratory Tract Illness Associated With Human Enterovirus 68 Among American Indian Children|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=31|issue=3|year=2012|pages=309–312|issn=0891-3668|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3182443eaf}}</ref><ref name="LuWo2013">{{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Q.-B.|last2=Wo|first2=Y.|last3=Wang|first3=H.-Y.|last4=Wei|first4=M.-T.|last5=Zhang|first5=L.|last6=Yang|first6=H.|last7=Liu|first7=E.-M.|last8=Li|first8=T.-Y.|last9=Zhao|first9=Z.-T.|last10=Liu|first10=W.|last11=Cao|first11=W.-C.|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 as one of the commonest types of enterovirus found in patients with acute respiratory tract infection in China|journal=Journal of Medical Microbiology|volume=63|issue=Pt_3|year=2013|pages=408–414|issn=0022-2615|doi=10.1099/jmm.0.068247-0}}</ref><ref name="ImamuraSuzuki2014">{{cite journal|last1=Imamura|first1=Tadatsugu|last2=Suzuki|first2=Akira|last3=Lupisan|first3=Socorro|last4=Kamigaki|first4=Taro|last5=Okamoto|first5=Michiko|last6=Roy|first6=Chandra Nath|last7=Olveda|first7=Remigio|last8=Oshitani|first8=Hitoshi|title=Detection of enterovirus 68 in serum from pediatric patients with pneumonia and their clinical outcomes|journal=Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses|volume=8|issue=1|year=2014|pages=21–24|issn=17502640|doi=10.1111/irv.12206}}</ref><ref name="PirallaGirello2014">{{cite journal|last1=Piralla|first1=Antonio|last2=Girello|first2=Alessia|last3=Grignani|first3=Michela|last4=Gozalo-Margüello|first4=Monica|last5=Marchi|first5=Antonietta|last6=Marseglia|first6=Gianluigi|last7=Baldanti|first7=Fausto|title=Phylogenetic characterization of enterovirus 68 strains in patients with respiratory syndromes in Italy|journal=Journal of Medical Virology|volume=86|issue=9|year=2014|pages=1590–1593|issn=01466615|doi=10.1002/jmv.23821}}</ref>
==Complications==
==Complications==
Complications are observed among 16-21% of patients diagnosed with enterovirus 68. The majority of patients with complications have a history of pulmonary or systemic co-morbidities.<ref name="Meijervan der Sanden2012">{{cite journal|last1=Meijer|first1=Adam|last2=van der Sanden|first2=Sabine|last3=Snijders|first3=Bianca E.P.|last4=Jaramillo-Gutierrez|first4=Giovanna|last5=Bont|first5=Louis|last6=van der Ent|first6=Cornelis K.|last7=Overduin|first7=Pieter|last8=Jenny|first8=Shireen L.|last9=Jusic|first9=Edin|last10=van der Avoort|first10=Harrie G.A.M.|last11=Smith|first11=Gavin J.D.|last12=Donker|first12=Gé A.|last13=Koopmans|first13=Marion P.G.|title=Emergence and epidemic occurrence of enterovirus 68 respiratory infections in The Netherlands in 2010|journal=Virology|volume=423|issue=1|year=2012|pages=49–57|issn=00426822|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2011.11.021}}</ref> Complications that can develop as a result of enterovirus 68 are:
Complications are observed among 16-21% of patients diagnosed with enterovirus 68. The majority of patients with complications have a history of pulmonary or systemic co-morbidities.<ref name="Meijervan der Sanden2012">{{cite journal|last1=Meijer|first1=Adam|last2=van der Sanden|first2=Sabine|last3=Snijders|first3=Bianca E.P.|last4=Jaramillo-Gutierrez|first4=Giovanna|last5=Bont|first5=Louis|last6=van der Ent|first6=Cornelis K.|last7=Overduin|first7=Pieter|last8=Jenny|first8=Shireen L.|last9=Jusic|first9=Edin|last10=van der Avoort|first10=Harrie G.A.M.|last11=Smith|first11=Gavin J.D.|last12=Donker|first12=Gé A.|last13=Koopmans|first13=Marion P.G.|title=Emergence and epidemic occurrence of enterovirus 68 respiratory infections in The Netherlands in 2010|journal=Virology|volume=423|issue=1|year=2012|pages=49–57|issn=00426822|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2011.11.021}}</ref> Complications that can develop as a result of enterovirus 68 are:
*Lower respiratory infections<ref name="pmid21802981">{{cite journal| author=Rahamat-Langendoen J, Riezebos-Brilman A, Borger R, van der Heide R, Brandenburg A, Schölvinck E et al.| title=Upsurge of human enterovirus 68 infections in patients with severe respiratory tract infections. | journal=J Clin Virol | year= 2011 | volume= 52 | issue= 2 | pages= 103-6 | pmid=21802981 | doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2011.06.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21802981 }} </ref>
*Lower respiratory infections<ref name="pmid21802981">{{cite journal| author=Rahamat-Langendoen J, Riezebos-Brilman A, Borger R, van der Heide R, Brandenburg A, Schölvinck E et al.| title=Upsurge of human enterovirus 68 infections in patients with severe respiratory tract infections. | journal=J Clin Virol | year= 2011 | volume= 52 | issue= 2 | pages= 103-6 | pmid=21802981 | doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2011.06.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21802981 }} </ref>
−
**Pneumonia is considered the most common complication of enterovirus 68
**Pneumonia is considered the most common complication of enterovirus 68
**Bacterial super-infection is reported with organisms that are commonly associated with lower respiratory infections, such as ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', ''Hemophilus influenzae'', ''Mycoplasma pnuemoniae'', and ''Chlamydia pneumniae''
**Bacterial super-infection is reported with organisms that are commonly associated with lower respiratory infections, such as ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', ''Hemophilus influenzae'', ''Mycoplasma pnuemoniae'', and ''Chlamydia pneumniae''
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*CNS sequelae<ref name="pmid21631275">{{cite journal| author=Kreuter JD, Barnes A, McCarthy JE, Schwartzman JD, Oberste MS, Rhodes CH et al.| title=A fatal central nervous system enterovirus 68 infection. | journal=Arch Pathol Lab Med | year= 2011 | volume= 135 | issue= 6 | pages= 793-6 | pmid=21631275 | doi=10.1043/2010-0174-CR.1 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21631275 }} </ref>
*CNS sequelae<ref name="pmid21631275">{{cite journal| author=Kreuter JD, Barnes A, McCarthy JE, Schwartzman JD, Oberste MS, Rhodes CH et al.| title=A fatal central nervous system enterovirus 68 infection. | journal=Arch Pathol Lab Med | year= 2011 | volume= 135 | issue= 6 | pages= 793-6 | pmid=21631275 | doi=10.1043/2010-0174-CR.1 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21631275 }} </ref>
+
**Lymphocytic meningomyelitis and encephalitis were both reported in only 1 case of a previously healthy 5-year-old boy
−
**Lymphocytic meningomyelitis and encephalitis were both reported in only 1 case of a previously healthy 5-year-old boy
*Death<ref name="pmid24073203">{{cite journal| author=Imamura T, Suzuki A, Lupisan S, Okamoto M, Aniceto R, Egos RJ et al.| title=Molecular evolution of enterovirus 68 detected in the Philippines. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2013 | volume= 8 | issue= 9 | pages= e74221 | pmid=24073203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074221 | pmc=PMC3779236 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24073203 }} </ref>
*Death<ref name="pmid24073203">{{cite journal| author=Imamura T, Suzuki A, Lupisan S, Okamoto M, Aniceto R, Egos RJ et al.| title=Molecular evolution of enterovirus 68 detected in the Philippines. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2013 | volume= 8 | issue= 9 | pages= e74221 | pmid=24073203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074221 | pmc=PMC3779236 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24073203 }} </ref>
−
**Death due to enterovirus 68-associated complications is documented among both children and adults, but is considered a very rare event
**Death due to enterovirus 68-associated complications is documented among both children and adults, but is considered a very rare event