UPSC IAS Mains History Optional Solved Exam Paper - 2012
:: Paper - I ::
Section A
Q1. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write short notes of about 40 words on each of the places marked on the map are given below: (very sorry we don’t have the map!)
(i) A prehistoric site : Piklihal
(ii) A Chalcolithic Site : Daimabad
(iii) A religious centre : Kundalwan
(iv) A Prehistoric site: Mehrgarh
(v) An art centre : Varanasi
(vi) A prehistoric site: Bangore
(vii) An art centre : Ellora
(viii) A port: Sopara
(ix) A Capital town : Patliputra
(x) A Prehistoric site : Hallur
(xi) A post-Mauryan town : Sisupalgarh
(xii) An art centre : Bhimbefka
(xiii) A pre-historic site : Chirand
(xiv) A Chalcolithic Site : Kaytha
(xv) A Chalcolithic Site : Inamgaon
(xvi) A Chalcolithic Site : Nevasa
(xvii) A Prehistoric Site : Burzahom
(xviii) An art centre : Amaravati
(xix) A Chalcolithic Site : Navatoli
(xx) A Chalcolithic Site : Ahar
Answer:
(i) A prehistoric site : Piklihal : An important archaeological site of the pre-historic era in Karnataka. It is a small village in Hingasugar taluk of Raichur district. It is neolithic site excavated by F.R. and Bridget Allchi in 1952. This site provided evidence of domesticated cattle, as well as sheep, goat, turtles and shellfish. The people who lived here used handmade brown terracotta vessels, some of them were finely polished, decorated with drawings and painting. They used tools such as axes made of black stone. Animal remains are also found. Relics of the iron age are also found in Piklihal at a level higher than the copper stone age.
(ii) A Chalcolithic Site : Daimabad: Daimabad is situated in the Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. It shows cultural habitation of three different periods-Neolithic, Harappan and Jorwe. It is on the left bank of the river Pravara a tributary of Godavari. The site was discovered by B.P, Bopardikar. Traces of the stone axe industry of South Indian neolithic culture have been found here. The other important find of this phase is black pottery. During the Harappan phase, it formed the southernmost frontier of the Harappan civilisation, as corroborated by the finding of terracotta figurines, seals and burnt bricks in the ratio 4:2:1 in a graveyard, all typical of the Harappan culture. But the most important find of Harappan culture are the massive artefacts in bronze, such as rhinoceros, buffalo, an elephant, and a chariot yoked to a pair of bullocks driven by a human being. These artefacts weigh over 60 kg. Daimabad was also an important site of Jorwe culture-a chalcolithic culture of about 1400 BC in Maharashtra. The copper stone tools, houses of stone, and traces of grains like barley and moong are supportive evidence.
(iii) A religious centre : Kundalwan: Kundalwan is a religious centre located in Kashmir. The fourth Buddhist council was held during the reign of Kanishka under the leadership of elder Vasumitra and the great scholar Asvaghosa. The convening of the council led to the division of Buddhism into two broad sects namely the Mahayana and the Hinayana.
(iv) A Prehistoric site: Mehrgarh: Mehrgarh is located in the Baluchistan region, now in Pakistan. The town provides the earliest example of settlement and cultivation in the Indian subcontinent. Mehrgarh shows three phases of settlement-Neolithic culture, pre-Indus culture, and Harappan culture. It was around 6000 BC that people started settlements here by making mud-brick houses. Mehrgarh people were also the earliest to start wheat cultivation in the Indian subcontinent around 6000-5000 BC. Evidence of mud-brick settlements of rectangular houses with multiple rooms suggests pre-Indus Valley culture. This phase even shows use of handmade pottery, cultivation of plants like barley, date and cotton, and domestication of animals. The Harappan culture is evident in the pattern of settlement, seals and pottery, use of precious metals and beads like lapis lazuli, and other items of Indus Valley Civilisation.
(v) An art centre : Varanasi: Banaras, as Varanasi was called for some time, is situated on the west bank of the Ganga in eastern Utter Pradesh. Varanasi or Banaras is one of the oldest living cities in the world, and its prominence in Hindu mythology is virtually unrivalled, one of the earliest descriptions of Varanasi is found in Buddhist scriptures and also in the epic Mahabharata. The Pali version of Varanasi was Banarasi which ultimately gave birth to the name ‘Banaras’. According to Vaman Purana, the Varuna and Assi rivers originated from the body of the primordial person at the beginning of time itself. The tract of land lying between them is believed to be the holiest of all pilgrimages. Varanasi is also known as Kashi, i.e., city of spiritual light. It was at Sarnath, only 10 km away from Varanasi, that Buddha preached his first sermon of enlightenment. Varanasi is also famous for its ghats, the most important and famous being the Dasaswamedha Ghat and the Manikarnika Gnat.
Varanasi is also renowned for its rich tradition of music, arts, crafts and education. Some of the worldrenowned exponents India has produced in these fields were schooled in Varanasi. Varanasi is famous for the art of silk weaving; Banarasi silk saris and silk brocades are known across the world today. Mark Twain, the renowned Indophile said of Varanasi, ‘Benares is older than history, older than tradition, older than legend and looks twice as old as all of them put together.”
(vi) A prehistoric site: Bagor: The archaeological site of Bagor is a Late Mesolithic (pre-Harappa) archaeological site located on the Kothari river in the Bhilwara District of the Rajasthan region of western India. Bagor was excavated by Deccan College scholars such as Virendra Nath Misra and Vasant Shinde in the 1960s and 1970s, who found evidence for the domestication of sheep, cattle and goats by the nomadic pastoralists of Bagor dating as early as 5000 to 3000 BC. This prehistoric site is related with middle Paleolithic era presently located in Bhilwara district of Rajasthan. The earliest evidence of animal rearing found here. Excavation of this site discovered Paleolithic instruments, bones of animals, making floor out of stone also found.
(vii) An art centre : Ellora: Ellora caves, situated about 25 km from Aurangabad in Maharashtra, are the finest specimens of cave architecture. (The site figures on UNESCO’s World Heritage list.) The Ellora caves, 34 in number, were carved during the period AD 350-800. The 12 caves to the south are Buddhist, 17 in the centre are dedicated to Hindu icons and five to the north are Jain caves. Cave numbers 6 and 10 house the Buddhist and Hindu images under the same roof, the latter dedicated to Vishwakarma-the patron saint of Indian craftsmen. The Vishwakarma cave is both a chaltya and a vihara with a seated Buddha placed in the stupa. The Kailash temple in cave 16 is an architectural marvel, the entire structure having been carved out of a monolith, and the process, having taken over a century to finish. It was built by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna 1. The Dumar Lena caves resemble the famous cave temples at Elephanta and are dedicated to Lord Shiva. Among the Jain shrines, the most important is the Indra Sabha as it contains images of tirthankaras. It is also famous for its fresco paintings, the themes of which are Brahminical and Jain.
(viii) A port: Sopara: Sopara is situated about 55 km north of Mumbai in Thane district. Sopara was an ancient port and an international trading centre. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy called it Surparaka, while Arabs called it Subara. In the time of the Buddha, Sopara (ancient Shurparaka) was an important port and gateway settlement. Perhaps this induced Ashoka to install his edicts there. Sopara is referred to in the Old Testament as Ophir-the place from where King Solomon brought gold.
In the times of the Mauryas, communication between northern India and Central India was through Sopara. One trade route linked Sopara to Ujjain via Nasik, Pitalkhora, Ajanta, and Maheshwar. The clue to ancient trade routes is provided by the location of early rock-cut caves situated along the roads.
Sopara remained a place of importance even in the early medieval period. In a copper plate inscription of 11th century AD of the Silahara dynasty, Sopara is mentioned as a famous port. Arab travellers mention Sopara’s leather goods dyed with colours were of great international repute. Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller in the 13th century, mentions Sopara as an important port and describes its trade items.
(ix) A Capital town : Patliputra: Modern Patna, the capital of Bihar, was known in history by several names like Kusumpur, Pushappur, Pataliputra and Azeemabad. It saw the rise and fall of India’s earliest major kingdoms. Its period of glory spanned a thousand years from the sixth century BC to the sixth century AD. Ajatashatru, the second Magadha king, built a small fort at Patligram at the confluence of the Ganga and the Son. This later became the famous Mauryan metropolis of Pataliputra, and was ruled by Chandra Gupta Maurya and his grandson, Ashoka. Its key central location in central India led rulers of successive dynasties to base their administrative capital - Mauryas, Nandas, Sungas and the Guptas down to Palas from here. Patiliputra reached the pinnacle of prosperity when it was the capital of the Great Mauryan emperors Chandragupta Maurya and the Ashoka the Great. Archaeological excavations of Kumrahar and Bulandibagh have revealed five archaeological periods from 600 BC to 600 AD.
(x) A Prehistoric site: Hallur is an archaeological site located in the Haveri district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. Hallur, South India’s earliest Iron Age site, lies in a semi-arid region with scrub vegetation, located on the banks of the river Tungabhadra. The site is a low mound about 6.4 m high. The excavations revealed two periods of occupation period 1. Neolithic and Chalcolithic and, period 2 an overlapping period between Neolithic - Chalcolithic and early Iron Age. Pottery in this period was generally black and red ware. The iron found in this site was subjected to radiocarbon dating by Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and it was found that these belonged to about 1000 B.C. Findings at Hallur indicated that Neolithic staples consisted of brown top millet, Mung bean, black gram and horse gram. The housing structures found here were circular floors, composed of schist chips and mud, pounded hard to make surface. The walls were made of bamboo and mud. Chalcolithic blade tools of black quartzite and small axes and fish hooks are also found. The site was first discovered by Nagaraja Rao in 1962, and excavated in 1965. Further sampling was carried out in the late 1990s for the recovery of archaeobotanical evidence and new high precision radiocarbon dates.
(xi) A post-Mauryan town : Sisupalgarh: The remains of the ancient city Sisupalgarh has been discovered near Bhubaneswar. Sisupalgarh is a nationally protected monument. Archaeologists claim the city to be at least 2,500 years old. On the basis of the architectural pattern and artefacts discovered during the early excavation, B.B. Lai concluded that this city flourished between 3rd C B.C. and 4 C A.D. Sisupalgarh is identified as a Kaling nagari, a capital of Kharwell.
(xii) An art centre : Bhimbetka: Located in the state of Madhya Pradesh, Bhimbetka has South Asia’s richest collection of pre-historic rock paintings and is an example of single rock art site in India. It covers the entire art activity in the form of paintings found in 133 caves-the largest collection of rock paintings in the country. Indian rock paintings are dated 10,000 years back on the basis of archaeological findings from excavations of the painted caves and India is also the first country to recognise the antiquity of the rock paintings.
Surrounded by the northern fringe of Vindhyan ranges, Bhimbetka lies 46 km south of Bhopal. In this rocky terrain of dense forests and craggy cliffs, over 600 rock shelters belonging to the Neolithic Age have been discovered. The paintings depicting the life of the prehistoric cave dwellers make Bhimbetka an invaluable chronicle in the history of man. The paintings are mainly in red and white, with occasional use of green and yellow, with themes taken from everyday life. The super-imposition of paintings shows that the same canvas was used by different people at different times. Bhimbetka was recently placed on UNESCO’s world heritage site list.
(xiii) A pre-historic site : Chirand: Chirand lies on the bank of River Ghagra, 11 km to the east of Chapra in the state of Bihar. Excavations reveal that it was an important site from the neolithic period to the third century AD, and later during the early medieval period. The neolithic period was marked by the use of stone axes, blades, considerable bow implements, and antler implements. The discovery of rice, wheat, barley, mung and masur in charred condition, and paddy husk impressions on some burnt clay pieces bear testimony to the practice of agriculture. The radiocarbon date suggests that this period was contemporary with postHarappa, but the relation between the two is not known. In the NBPW phase people used iron tools and weapons.
However, there was great material progress in cultural terms from the first century BC to the third century AD-which coincides with the Kushana period. The structural remains are generally of burnt bricks. A Buddhist monastery built in blocks-each block containing three cells-has been found. The discovery of Kushana copper coins indicate that it was an important centre of commerce during the early centuries of the Christian era, probably on account of its close contacts with the main trade route from Taxila to Tamralipti. Chirand seems to have been deserted after the third century AD but once again inhabited in the 11th century and 12th century AD, as indicated by five debased coins of gold of the Kalachuri king, Gangadeya (11th century), and the black stone image of Tara and Trimurti belonging to the Pala period.
(xiv) A Chalcolithic Site : Kaytha: Kaytha or Kayatha is an ancient historcal village in Tarana tehsil of Ujjain district in Madhya Pradesh. Its ancient name was Kâpitthaka. Kaytha excavated by the Vikramshila university and Deccan college, Pune. Kaytha divided into three periods 2400- 2120 BC known as Kaytha culture based on Kaytha ware; second period from 2100-1800 BC characterised by Ahar pottery; third period is known as Malwa Chakolithic culture; pottery shows Harappan influences. This village was the birth place and the place where Varahamihira (505 - 587) received enlightenment. Its population is 7,062. It is situated about 15 miles to the east of the present city of Ujjain, on the Ujjain-Makshi road.
(xv) A Chalcolithic Site : Inamgaon: Inamgaon is a post-Harappan agrarian village and archaeological site located in Maharashtra, western India. Situated along the right bank of the Ghod River, it is considered to be the “regional centre” of the Bhima Valley. The village is located in Shirur taluka of Pune District, approximately 89 kilometres to the east of the city of Pune. Inamgaon was excavated in the 1960s and 1970s by Deccan college, Pune. Many different kinds of stone tools and fossils of animal bones from this Period have been found. The Chalcolithic settlement at Inamgaon lasted for about 900 years. Archaeologists excavated the remains of many mud houses at Inamgaon. A fortified mud wall with stone rubble bastion and ditch around the habitation also found. Lots of stone tools and pottery at Inamgaon. Beads made of different sorts of material like terracotta, semi precious stones and ivory found here. The region, situated within the lower reaches of the Ghod, is characterized by Cretaceous-Eocene Deccan Trap basalt.
(xvi) A Chalcolithic Site : Nevasa: This site is located in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra. This place after Harappan civilization was important centre of Jorwa culture. In excavation, evidence of • tin arid lead alloying; beads strung upon thread of silk with a cotton was found in burial; two terracotta mother goddesses of crude form found here.
(xvii)A Prehistoric Site : Burzahom: Burzahom is situated 20 km north-west of Srinagar in Kashmir valley in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The site takes back the history of Kashmir to beyond 2000 BC and refutes the contention of some Western historians that Aryans migrated through Kashmir valley and that there was no cultural background in Kashmir before the migration of Aryans into India. Excavations reveal that it was an important neolithic settlement with certain features differentiating it from other such cultures of India. The people here lived in pits, circular or oval. These ‘pit dwellings’ were probably intended to give protection from cold. In association with Gufrakal, Burzahom provides distinct examples of pit-dwelling in Kashmir valley. The people of.Burzahom do not seem to have been acquainted with agriculture; they probably had a hunting and fishing economy as suggested by fishing hoops and stone tools. An important feature of these people was that, besides stone tools, they used a large number of bone tools in the form of harpoons, needles, scrapers and arrowheads. However, the most significant feature is the joint burial of human beings and their domestic animals. The excavations have revealed ‘dog burial’ along with human graves-a cultural similarity to Central Asian neolithic culture. However, the burials also refute any claim of migration of these peoples from Central Asia.
(xviii)An art centre : Amaravati: Amaravati is situated in Guntur district, on the southern bank of River Krishna, near modern Vijayawada in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Amaravati was a great Mahayana Buddhist centre. It is famous for its Buddhist stupa and its marble-like limestone sculptures, which represent the earliest Buddhist monuments in the Krishna valley, and belong to the period 200 BC-AD 300. Amaravati is also the site of the temple of Lord Shiva known as Amaresvara. Its old name is Dhanyakata meaning the corn town. Thus it has a special significance for Hindus. According to legend, devas, after being defeated by the asuras, came to live here and from then onwards, Dhanyakata came to be known as Amaravati-the abode of amaras (immortals) or the immortal devas.
Amaravati is famous for the Amaravati school of art, known for the following features:
White marble limestone is the medium.
Though nature is depicted, the central charac ters are human beings.
Kings, princes and palaces figure prominently in sculptural representation.
The sculptures of kings are not individual statues as in Mathura but are part of a narrative. In fact, the Amaravati school of art under its Satavahana and Ikshvaku patrons and rrtaster crafts men produced some of the finest art pieces,, in ancient India.
(xix) A Chalcolithic Site : Navadatoli: Navdatoli, an ancient site situated on the southern bank of River Narmada near Maheshwar, is known for an old civilisation associated with the stone and copper phase or the chalcolithic phase. Tools belonging to the later stone age were discovered at Navdatoli along with varieties of cereals, and the latter discovery suggests the cultivation of ber and linseed. The Malwa culture dating from 1700-1200 BC, and found in Navdatoli, Eran and Nagda, is considered to be non-Harappan.
(xx) A Chalcolithic Site : Ahar: Ahar is located in the Banas valley of south-east Rajasthan on the bank of River Banas near Udaipur. Traces of an ancient culture that have been found here are therefore said to constitute the Ahar or Banas culture. It is a chalcolithic culture site and town that came into prominence during 1600 BC-1200 BC. One of the special features of this site is complete absence of the stone tools, whether axes or blades. However, copper tools are significantly numerous. The houses at this site were made of stone and mud, and we can distinguish two pottery phases:
(a) Black-and-Red Ware (BRW), painted in pinkish-white pigment with linear and geometric patterns, and (b) Lustrous Red Ware, typical of post-Harappan culture at Rangpur.
No Harappan site has yet been discovered in this area, and it is therefore a matter of great interest to speculate on the origin of Banas culture and its relationship to Indo-Iranian tribal groups. The BRW culture from Ahar forms a distinct cultural phase owing to its dissimilarities with BRW of the doab and other regions:
The BRW of the doab region is devoid of any paintings while that of Ahar has paintings in white on black surface.
The painted BRW from Ahar has concave sides and its fabric is coarse; the plain BRW of the doab is absent at Ahar.
Bowls with spout and dish on stand found at Ahar and Gilund have not been found in the doab sites.
Later, Ahar was the capital of the Sisodias who created Mewar.
Q2. (a) Evaluate the significance of seals and sealings in the reconstruction of socioeconomic and religious life of the Harappan people. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Q2 (b) Justify Pliny’s statement that Rome was being drained out of its gold by India during the first century of the Christian era. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
3. (a) Discuss the extent, settlement pattern and subsistence economy of the megalithic cultures
Answer.
Comprised of the Kaveri delta, the Deccan plateau and such places as Vidharba constitute South India, and this belt of the peninsular part of India was part of megalithic culture. The megalithic applied to tombs built with large stones either in natural form or dressed as a grave marked with crude stone or an excavation in rock cave retaining remains of the dead. In various parts at the old world, the practice of erecting megaliths on a large scale began from the Neolithic times and continued into the Bronze age and late Iron age and survives till today with the hill tribes of Northeast India. The megalithic culture was the earliest known culture responsible for introducing a full fledged agricultural economy based on irrigation in south India. Iron made rather sudden but definite appearance either with megalithic culture or closely followed it.
In India ever since the first notice of megaliths in Kerala was made by Babington (1923), a rest body of evidence has reported since from various sectors of south India.
The megalithic people of South India practiced a mixed economy based on agro-pastrol production. Combination of specialized strategies, i.e., agriculture and cattle pastoralism was adopted at societal scale of production. A wide variety of shades in different fabrics and the technical efficiency evidenced in the preparation of ceramics hint probably at a professional class of potters and pottery making as one of the important economic activities. However, hunting-gathering practices are also evidenced by archaeological tool remains and paintings of that period. Thus, a marked division between ‘nomadism’ and ‘sedentism’ cannot be made in South Indian case. Rather it had reached a transitory-phase from where settled life style and societies emerged.
Q3 (b) Assess the educational system in India and identify important educational institutions of the period.
Answer.
Education in ancient India had a deep impact in the upliftment and advancement of the early society and over all development. India is pregnant with a rich tradition of knowledge and learning from the earliest days of Indian civilization. There are several literary sources, such as Vedas and the other Hindu texts and scriptures, which have references about education system of the ancient societies. The Mahabharata, some Dharma sutras particularly those of Gautam Buddha and Apostamba and the Manu Smiriti and the principal works dealing with the education system in early India. Education in this age was unrelenting carry on of the foundations offered to it during the vedic period, but a certain firmness and narrowness now marked its implementation. Education now aimed at equipping the student for the struggle of existence. After the ‘upanyana’ ceremony, teachers imparted education to their students according to the latter’s interests, tendencies and nature. Celibacy was rigidly observed by the students. Teachers paid full attention to the psychological make-up of their students while teaching and corporal or physical punishment was regarded as the last resort of administration and discipline. It has been, stated in the Manu smriti and Yajyaravalka.
Education is early India originated with Gurukul system. However, several temples and community centres regularly took the role of schools. In the vedic days the teaching of the four Vedas, the hymns and ritual practices were seen. The preceptors were of two classes namely Acharya and Upadhyaya.
In matter of education in early societies, the constricted barriers of the caste-system seemed to have crumbled down as per the various literary texts. The spread of Buddhism and Jainism in India enriched and evolved the state of education in ancient India. In this period education became accessible to everyone and various celebrated educational institutions were established at that instant. Few of the most important universities in India in the ancient times were Vikramshila, Taxila and Nalanda.
Education at that time was free. It was free because no student was required to pay any fees. It was free also because no outside agency could interfere in the matters of education. There was perfect autonomy. No external authority, no external beneficiary, no politics was permitted to enter the school or college system. A student had to pay nothing in return for education he received in Gurukul. Women were allowed to learn and participate in Yaga or in discussion in Rigvedic time, but were forbidden in later vedic time. Buddhist school of teaching opened the education for women to some extent. .
Some of the best educational institutions in early India are Nalanda University, Takshashila University, Odantpuri in Bihar, Somapura in Bangladesh, Jagaddal in Bengal, Nagarjunkonda in Andhra Pradesh, Vikramshila in Bihar, Sharadha Peeth in Kashmir, Valabhi in Gujarat, Varanasi in U.P., Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu, Manyakheta in Karnataka, Pushpagiri and Ratnagiri in Orissa.
Q4. (a). Examine the role of adhyaksha in the Mauryan administration. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Q4 (b) Analyze the vibrant cultural activities in peninsular India during 550-750 CE. Compare and contrast it with the situation in contemporary North India. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Section B
Q5. Write short notes in not more than 150 words on each of the following:
(a). Evaluate Rajtarangini as a source of history.
Answer.
Rajatarangini, ( Sanskrit: “River of Kings”) historical chronicle of early India, written in Sanskrit verse by the Kashmiri Brahman Kalhana in 1148, that is justifiably considered to be the best and most authentic work of its kind. It covers the entire span of history in the Kashmir region from the earliest times to the date of its composition. Kalhana was excellently equipped for the work.
His access to minute details of contemporary court intrigues was almost direct: his father and uncle were both in the Kashmir court. Regarding the events of the past, Kalhana’s search for material was truly fastidious. He delved deep into such model works as the Harsacarita and the Brihat-samhita epics and used with commendable familiarity the local rajakathas (royal chronicles) and such previous works on Kashmir as Nripavali by Kshemendra, Parthivavali by Helaraja, and Nilamatapurana. He displayed surprisingly advanced technical expertise for the time in his concern for unconventional sources. He looked up a variety of epigraphic sources relating to royal eulogies, construction of temples, and land grants; he studied coins, monumental remains, family records, and local traditions. But his traditional conceptual framework, using uncritical assumptions and a belief in the role of the poet as an exponent of moral maxims, makes the idealizing content in his narrative, particularly for the early period, rather dominant.
Rajatarangini, which consists of 7,826 verses, is divided into eight books. Book I attempts to weave imaginary tales of Kashmir kings into epic legends. Gonanda was the first king and a contemporary and enemy of the Hindu deity Krishna. Traces of genuine history are also found, however, in references to the Mauryan emperors Ashoka and Jalauka; the Buddhist Kushan kings Hushka (Huviska), Jushka (Vajheska), and Kanishka (Kaniska); and Mihirakula, a Huna king. Book II introduces a new line of kings not mentioned in any other authentic source, starting with Pratapaditya I and ending with Aryaraja. Book III starts with an account of the reign of Meghavahana of the restored line of Gonanda and refers to the brief reign of Matrigupta, a supposed contemporary of Vikramaditya Harsha of Malwa. There too, legend is mixed with reality, and Toramana Huna is incorporated into the line of Meghavahana. The book closes with the establishment of the Karkota Naga dynasty by Durlabhaka Pratapaditya II, and it is from Book IV on that Rajatarangini takes on the character of a dependable historical narrative. The Karkota line came to a close with the usurpation of the throne by Avantivarman, who started the Utpala dynasty in 855. In Books V and VI the history of the dynasty continues to 1003, when the kingdom of Kashmir passed on to a new dynasty, the Lohara. Book VII brings the narrative to the death of King Harsha (1101), and Book VIII deals with the stormy events between the death of Harsha and the stabilization of authority under Kalhana’s contemporary Jayasimha (reigned 1128–49).
In style the Rajatarangini narrative is sometimes considered as versified prose on a massive scale, yet its strong structural appeal made it a model for later historians. In fact, the history of Kashmir was continued, along Kalhana’s line, down to some years after the annexation of Kashmir by the Mughal emperor Akbar (1586) in the following works: Rajatarangini (by Jonaraja), Jainatarangini (by Shrivara), and Rajavalipataka (by Prajyabhatta and Shuka). Neither in style nor in authenticity do these works approximate the quality of Kalhana’s Rajatarangini.
Q5 (b) Medieval Indian towns were merely an extension of villages. Comment.
Answer.
According to Abul Fazl, “People that are attached to the world will collect in towns, without them there would be no progress.” The growth of town became faster in 18th C than 16th and 17th centuries. Towns and Town life are considered to be an index of the state of development and culture in a country. On account of the peace and law and order established by the Mughals in north and central India, and the consequent growth of commerce and manufacture, the period has been conceived as a veritable golden age of urbanization. The smallest towns in India, the Qasba has been defined as a village with market. Gradually this town became a big town. In Akbar’s empire there were 120 big cities and 3200 townships or rural towns (Qasbas). In the 17th C, largest city was Agra with 50 to 60 thousand population. Delhi was as populous as Paris. Lahore was bigger than Agra.
Houses in town are entirely built of brick and stone and several are made only of clay and straw, yet they are airy and pleasant, most of them having good furniture, courts and gardens. In each town there were one or two principal roads, which formed chowks. The city was divided into wards or Mohallas in which people of one caste or profession lived. In general, the points to note is that the administrative structure of towns was such as to discharge in a satisfactory manner the effective purpose of town life. Many villages grew into towns and now they all are big cities of India in medieval time.
Q5 (c) Assess the contribution of the Acharyas in the development of the ideological basis of Bhakti. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Q5 (d) Discuss the Caurapancashika and Jain styles of painting. Can the Caurapancashika style truly be called the precursor of pothi format? (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
6. (a) What kind of changes were visualized by Historians of Indian feudalism? Examine critically.
Answer.
The topic of Indian feudalism was highly discussed concept among the historians, and all the historians have various views over rise, growth and decline of feudalism.
D.D. Kaushambi, proposed the theory of feudal and feudalism. He talked about feudal from top and feudalism from bottom. Feudal from top according to him, that subordinate appointed by ruler to collect the revenue of certain area who ruled over that area and helped the ruler whenever needed. The feudalism from bottom, according to him was that, among the peasants emerged one powerful regional landlord called zamindar or lambardar.
The theory of D.D. Kaushambi was discarded by R.S. Sharma, and he only used the term feudalism. According to him, feudalism is outcome of the land allocation as a grant generally. In Gupta era, mainly at the end, commerce and trade were declining, resulting in shortage of coin currency. Therefore the land was allotted to the officials of state in lieu of salary. Gradually, this process of land allotment grew at large scale. The allocation of land to royal officers gave birth to feudalism.
R.S. Sharma’s feudalism concept theory was criticized by D.D. Kosambi and B.D. Chatopadhya. D.D. Kousambi clarified that, whom those R.S. Sharma says are feudal are no more than simple zamindar. Similarly, B.D. Chattopadhya also denounced the theory of land allocation as a grant and decline of cities and decline of commerce and trade. The grant of land increased the political and commercial power of rulers. The feudalism gave birth to regional states and this regional state was given legal sanctity from king. Feudalism also encouraged agriculture farming in tribal areas, and tribal people were converted into agro society. Regional rulers were increased. B.D. Chatopadhya says, feudalism promoted political formation rather than political division. This is considered as integrative state system.
Harvansh Mukhia also did not accept R.S. Sharma view over feudalism. He compared with Europe, and said in Europe feudalism arose due to society’s original structure but in India it emerged by the effort of states.
Further, historians by research amenlded the ideas about feudalism there. D.N. Jha connected cultural dimension to the study of feudalism. He connected the Bhakti with feudal consciousness. He explained the feudal and peasant as God and follower. The research over the rise, growth and decline of feudalism continues, and more study can be done in coming days.
Q6 (b) Analyse the racial composition and the role of nobility under the successors of Iltumish. How did it affect the contemporary politics?
Answer.
The death of Iltumish diluted the political strength in India. None of his successors except of Razia Sultana deserved to be the Sultan of Delhi. Within ten years after the death of Iltumish, four sultans of his dynasty were murdered and the fifth one was a mere puppet in hands of Balban. The Turkish slaves took advantage of the weakness of the successors of Iltumish and captured the sovereign power to themselves.
The Turkish Slave nobles, after the death of Iltumish, first eliminated the princes who could be the contenders for power and then tried to capture the power of the sultan as well. The history of the thirty years of the Delhi sultanate after the death of Iltumish remained primarily the history of conflict between the sultan and the group of forty slave nobles for the sovereign power of the state. Finally Balban was successful in eliminating not only the dynasty of Iltumish but also the rest of nobles, thereby establishing the rule of a new dynasty.
During Balban’s reign (1266-87 A.D.), the influence of the turkan-i chihilgani was minimised. Since he himself was a member of the “Forty” before his accession, he was fully aware of the nobles’ rebellious activities. Therefore, he eased out the “tallest poppies amongst them through assassin’s dagger or poisoning, even including his cousin. On the other hand, he formed a group of loyal and trusted nobles called “Balbanl”. The removal of many members of the “Forty” deprived the state of the services of veterans and the void could not be fulfilled by the new and not so experienced ‘Bhlbani” nobles. This situation inevitably led to the fall of the llbarite rule, paving the way for the Khaljis. .
The reign of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 A.D.) saw a broadening in the composition of nobles. He did not admit of monopolization of the state by any one single group of nobles. State officers were open to talent and loyalty, to the exclusion of race and creed. Besides, he controlled them through various measures. Moreover, the enhancement of land revenue up to 50 per cent of the surplus produce must have pacified the nobles because an increase in the revenue of their respective iqta wbuld have raised their salarjf, too. Territorial expansion also provided enough resources towards recruiting persons with talent. The case of MaIik Kafur, an Abyssinian slave, is well-known. But this situation was shortlived: the death of Alauddin Khalji brought out once again the dissensions and conspiracies of the nobles, leading to the elimination of the Khaljis as rulers.
As for the Tughluqs, Muhammad Tughluq made attempts to organize nobles again and again, with turns and twists. But all his efforts failed to put them under check. Even the Khurasanis, whom he used to call “Aizzah”(the dear ones), betrayed him. The problems created by the nobles can be gauged from the fact that twenty-two rebellions took place during his reign with the loss of at least one territory, later known as Bahmani kingdom.
The crisis set in motion after Muhammad Tughluq’s death seems to have gone out of hands. Under these circumstances, Feroz Tughluq could not be expected to be stern with the nobles. They were given many concessions. They succeeded in.making their iqtas hereditary. The appeasement policy of sultan pleased the nobles, but in the long run, it proved disastrous. The army became inefficient because the practice of branding (dagh) of the horses introduced By Alauddin Khalji was almost given up. It was not possible, henceforth, for his descendants or later rulers to’roll back the tide of decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
Under the Sayyids (1414-51 A.D.) and the Lodis (1451-1526 A.D.), the situation did not appear to be comfortable: the former were not at all fit for the role of saviors.
Q7. (a) Evaluate the role of nadu and nagaram in the growth of urbanization under the Cholas. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Q7 (b) How did the Mongol invasions affect the Delhi sultanate and the North—western frontier policy of the Delhi Sultans? (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
8. (a) State the structure of medieval village society in Northern India. What were the passive forms of resistance of the peasants in the medieval period?
Answer.
The Indian society was divided into four major groups. They were the aristocrats, the priests, the towns people and the peasants. The aristocrats included the Sultan and his relatives, nobility and the landholders. There were also the Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu merchants and bankers. They concentrated all the wealth as well as the power in their hands. Needless to say that they were a group of very powerful people. To maintain his distinction as the ruler, he was provided with many officers and servants at the royal household where he lived in great luxury. Even the nobility imitated his style and showed off their wealth. The Priests were another important class of people in the society. Among the Hindus, they were the Brahmans and Ulemas among the Muslims. They were given grants of tax-free land for their maintenance and were often very powerful. The artisans lived in their own special quarters. The structure of medieval village society in Northern India was slightly modified form of early times. There has been some fundamental changes in village society structure in Medieval time. The difference which emerged is the establishment of Islamic society, beside the existence of Hindu and rigid form of caste system in India. During Sultanate period and Mughal period, many foreigners of Islam religion settled here in Indian villages as well as large number of local Indians converted into Muslim religion. By the introduction of Islam in village society of Northern India some changes emerged in village society set up.
Under the Sultanate period there were no structural changes. Rulers did not interfere in village society much. The administration of village society was according to old practices. The evil social practices like child marriage, sati, male dominance and gender biases were existing in both Hindu and Muslim society. Women were enjoying freedom though they were dependent on husband and other male relatives. The cultural life of women was distinct according to their class. The ordinary village women were confined to do domestic work while elite women of village were learning art and education and enjoy freedom to some extent.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, about 85 percent of India’s population lived in rural area. A main feature of rural society in the country excluding tribal areas was it was highly stratified in nature. People were divided and grouped on the basis of their resident status, caste and position as office holders. While there was considerable differences in their material status, material situation was not a primary factor in fixing their position in rural society. Village Panchayats were dominated by the resident cultivators, or a few prominent persons, generally drawn from that section. Land was not held by the village community, but by individuals who were assessed separately. However, the bodies of resident cultivators were sometimes held responsible for the payment of the assessed land-revenue. This was a device to prevent the flight of peasants from the village as far as possible. As the zamindars became stronger during the eighteenth century, following the growing weakness of centralized government, the role of the resident cultivators in regulating the internal affairs of the village also become weaker.
Q8 (b) How was the Afghan nobility responsible for the decline of the Afghan empires? Discuss.
Answer.
Ibrahim Lodi displeased the nobility when he replaced old and senior commanders by younger ones who were loyal to him. He was feared and loathed by his subjects. His Afghan nobility eventually invited Babur to invade India. Ibrahim Lodi wanted to strengthen his position at the cost of his nobles and he did all that he could to humble them. He imprisoned Mian Bhur who was one of his father’s leading nobles. His offence only was that he was careless in nature and acted as he thought best in the interests of his master without always troubling to obtain the formal approval of his proceedings. The old man died in prison and his death sapped the fidelity of his son although he was otherwise generously treated. Azam Khan was put to death by the orders of the king when he was being actually being taken to the fort of Hansi for imprisonment. Even the greatest nobles feared their safety. No wonder, Darya Khan, Khan i-Jahan Lodi and Hussain Khan Farmuli were killed in their bed by some of holy men of Chanderi Bahadhur Khan, son of Darya Khan. Ibrahim Lodi cruelly treated Dilwar Khan, son of Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab. Ibrahim Lodi addressed Dilwar Khan in these words. “Have you seen the condition of those who have disobeyed me?” Dilwar Khan somehow escaped to his father and told him all that he had seen and experienced at the Capital Delhi. It was under these circumstances that Daulat Khan Lodi sent an invitation to Babur to invade India.
The main reason of Afghan nobles’ treachery was humiliation of Afghan nobles by the Afghan emperors. Nobles revolted in various parts of the country because they wanted to be safe from emperor and ambitious to increase their strength. The emperor was unable to coordinate the Afghan nobles, rather the emperor punished them and humiliated them on small grounds even. Ultimately Ibrahim failed to maintain his authority over local officers, and provincial governors. On account of his own acts of omission and commission discontentment continued to increase and the result was that, by 1526, he was surrounded by enemies on all sides. He was no match for Babur and no wonder he lost the empire.
:: Paper II ::
Section A
Q1 Critically examine the following statements in about 150 words each:
(a) “The current practice of categorization of early modern India is based on a shift from the old imperialist periodization of ‘Muslim India-British India’ to the more secularist chronological structure”.
Answer.
James Mill was an eminent Indologist in the early nineteenth century. However, with due regard to him, we can state that his understanding of India was narrow and was coloured by colonial superiority. In 1817, he wrote his three-volume seminal book “A History of British India”. In this, he divided India’s history into three periods —Hindu, Muslim and British. At that time, such categorization of India was considered authentic and therefore, acceptable. Historians divide history to different periods when they intend to highlight the central characters of a certain period. From this angle, breaking down a country’s history to different periods appears logical and appropriate. Such description helps the reader to understand how the society, its customs, economy, religion and art changed as the country passed from one era to the next.
The categorization of Indian history is propounded by James Mill in his book, History of British India. He was the first historian who interpreted Indian history on communal grounds. He criticized every period and justifies only the British period. Nationalist school of historiography emerged in reaction to the imperialist and glorifies the ancient period. Marxist school of historiography emerged in reaction to nationalist and imperialist schools. This Marxist school interpreted Indian history scientifically from every perspective. Marxist scholars gave more secularist demarcation of Indian, History into Ancient, Medieval and Modern. That approach puts Indian history into a universalist chronological structure.
In such a depiction of India, the land was ‘dark’, and the British were the torch-bearers of civilization. Any reader of history today will dismiss Mill’s portrayal as irreverent and deeply flawed.
Let us leave James Mill now. Other historians have divided India’s history into three sections: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. A closer look at such classification will show that even such a classification is also not fully correct. This method is borrowed from Western scholars who found this idea rather easy to adopt and interpret.
As per this methodology, history in ‘Modern’ times was marked by science, rationality, democracy, egalitarianism and liberty. ‘Medieval’ period which proceeded the ‘Modern’ period had none of these values or accomplishments. On scrutiny, we find that this idea has many weaknesses. During British rule, we will be assumed to have lived in a ‘Modern’ era. But, Indians had no equality, liberty nor democracy. Science was not encouraged. There was no push for economic growth either. The common division of most history into ancient, medieval and modern is on the assumption that there are certain characteristics which distinguish each of their periods from the others. The imperialist or Cambridge school of historiography divided Indian history on communal lines into Hindu period, Muslim India and British India. In reaction to imperialist school, the Marxist school of historiography divided Indian history into ancient, medieval and modern Indian history that is based more on secular foundation. Many historians, therefore, have described the British period as ‘Colonial’ era.
Q1 (b) “Compared to their English counterparts, the French East India company enjoyed little discretionary power and had to always look up to Paris for all major decisions. This partly explains the failure of the French in India”
Answer.
French historians have rightly attributed the failure of France in the colonial struggle to the inferior system of the government prevalent in France as compared to the English system of government.
The French government was despotic and depended on the personality of the monarch. It was through the short-sighted, ill-managed European policy of Louis XV, misguided by his mistresses and by incompetent ministers, that France lost her Indian settlements in the Seven Years War. The French Company was a department of the state.
Since the state guaranteed dividend to the shareholders, the latter took very little interest in promoting the Prosperity of the Company. So great was the lack of public interest that from 1725 to 1765 the shareholders never met and the Company was managed as a department of the state. Under these circumstances the financial position of the French Company progressively deteriorated. At one stage the resources of the Company dwindled to such low ebb that it had to sell its trading rights to a group of merchants from St. Malo for an annual payment. From 1721 to 1740 the Company traded on borrowed capital. Constantly propped up by subsidies from the royal treasury, the Company was kept going by monopoly of tobacco and gambling in lotteries. Such a company was ill-equipped to support the ambitions of Dupleix or finance his expensive wars.
The English Company, on the other hand, was an independent commercial corporation. While this Company could not remain altogether unaffected by the political upheavals in England, the interference of the government into its day-to-day affairs was very little. Whoever controlled the administration in England, the King or Parliament, there was great interest in the ruling circles for the well- being of the Company. Compared to the French Company, the English Company was financially sounder. Its trade was far more extensive and business methods better. The directors of the English Company always emphasised the importance of trade. With them trade came first and politics later on.
Financially the English Company was so rich that at one time it was in danger of being regarded as a much cow by the Government of England. In 1767 the English Company was asked to pay £ 400,000 a year to the British treasury.
The English and the French had properly established their settlements in India by 1740 and had become serious rivals of each other. They fought three wars in India and by 1763 the English had completely crushed the French military and political power in this country. Several factors contributed to the ultimate failure of French but most important was that French East India Company enjoyed little discretionary power and had always had to look up to Paris for all major decisions compared to their English counterparts. The commercial superiority and better financial position of British in India was because of its autonomous character. The English company was a private concern and its employees possessed great initiative and enterprise. Their fortunes were linked with the prosperity of the company and they took great interest in its affairs. The French company became a government concern and its shareholders had been granted a fixed dividend. Its employees did not have the zest and initiative which was possessed by the employees of the English Company.
The private character of the English company was helpful in another way. The changes of government at home did not affect the fortunes of the company in India. The French company, on the other hand, was greatly affected by political changes at home. The decadence of the French political system was bound to have an adverse effect on the French company. The English company was though a private concern was backed by government. French company neither received any backing nor discretionary power and this led to the failure of the French in India.
Q1 (c) “The peasant movements of the second half of the nineteenth century lacked a positive conception of an alternative society - a conception which would unite the people in a. common struggle on a wide regional and all-India plane and help develop long term political developments.”
Answer.
We need to examine the social context and historical situation which led to peasant movements, as also to see its weaknesses in terms of caste-structure, pre-political character, lack of organic leadership and peasants understanding of colonialism.. However it is the paucity of data and absence of proper anthropological and historical case-studies’ which make our task difficult. A rough classification of the revolts during British rule yields five types of action in terms of ideology, goal and methods of organisation (a) Restorative rebellions; (b) Religious: (c) Social banditry (d) terrorist vengeance and (e) mass insurrections.
The above statement explains the nature of peasant movements in later 19th C. At that time, peasant movements’ nature became changeable with passage of time and place. Its character was quite regional based. These peasant movements being of regional character lacked national perspective. Therefore could not be organized at national level.
Some of the peasant movements were Moplah, Pabna, Deccan peasant etc. These peasant movements were regional and changeable. These movements were started with regional issues and after settlement of the issues the movements get withdrawn. These movements were against landlords and moneylenders but not against the British supremacy. These movements would not understand the exploitative character of colonial rule whose main cause was rules made by Britishers. For example, the Pabna peasants declared that they are Rayyats of Queen Victoria and will remain Rayyat of Victoria. Their aggression was against the contemporary exploiters, indigo producers, landlords, money lenders etc. All the peasant movements of late 19th C. were concentrated in various different regions only. Peasants at different parts could not make coordination to form union at national level or form common struggle on wide regional and all-India plane and help develop long term political movements.
Q1 (d) “Plantations and mines, jute mills, banking, insurance, shipping and export-import concerns in India were run through a system of interlocking managing agencies.” (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Q1 (e) “Nehru’s policy of Non-Alignment came to symbolize the struggle of India and other newly independent nations to retain and strengthen their independence from colonialism”. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Q2. (a) “The forces of free trade and the British determination to create a political and administrative environment conducive to trade and investment had shaped the British Policy towards India in the first half of the nineteenth century”. Elucidate, (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
Q2 (b) “The concept of the new middle class with the west proved to be a catalyst. The social and religious movements launched by Ram Mohan Roy or IshwarChandra VidyaSagar have to, be understood in the context. Elaborate”. (for Answer Join Online Coaching for IAS Mains Exam)
3. (a) “The railways, instead of serving as the catalyst of an industrial revolution as in western Europe and the USA, acted in India as the catalyst of complete colonization.’ Examine,
Answer.
The British intention of creating railway infrastructure was the catalyst of complete colonization of India, On the other hand, in U.S.A. and Western Europe railways were serving the society and promoting industrial revolution. The railways pushed India into an era of classical colonization. This was characterized by Indian exports of agricultural raw materials and imports of British manufactured products. India’s economy was twisted to fit this colonial pattern.
Lord Dalhousie paid great attention to the railways and the telegraphs. There were two reasons for introducing railways. Firstly, these would improve communication and thereby help in the defence of the country and the maintenance of peace and order. Secondly, these would encour-1 age British investment in India. Lord Dalhousie opened the first railway line between Bombay and Thane in 1853. This railway had been planned by Lord Hardinge. Calcutta was connected with Raniganj coal fields by rail in 1854.
The enormous project was financed entirely by British private investment capital. Private British companies with the strong backing of the government of India not only built railways but also owned them.
“If we can cheapen carriages, we may greatly increase the imports of foreign articles into the interior, and in corresponding way, export cotton and other agricultural produce”. This observation made by an East India Company agent in mid 1840s aptly sums up the fundamental characteristic of the colonial economy of India in the 19th C.
Unlike in Europe and United States the colonial railways in India did not lead to the growth of urban centers. The railways just redistributed the urban population leading to the decline of old cities and commercial centers. For example, the major Mughal trading city of Mirzapur on the Ganges declined and the population simply moved to the colonial port cities putting all the traditional industries located in such inland centers at a disadvantage. The railways in particular brought about this new process of de-urbanization in the 19th Century.
Indian railways did not experience any serious competition from alternative modes of transport. Neither the government of India nor private companies showed much interest in building canals, roads, river channels for streamers, boats or carts. So the railways had a virtual monopoly on pricing and rates. There was no govt., regulation of the railway companies. Each company operated as a profit maximizing entity. The total rail business was controlled by just five companies, which were all British.
Colonial railways in fact had a regressive impact on the land, environment and the people of India. The Indian nationalists in the 19th C decried not so much the railways per se, but its colonial and competitive character. In one sense, the railway construction of the second half of the 19th C completed the colonization of the Indian economy, pulling all its erstwhile isolated segments inside the British imperialism. This actually began with the triumph of railways. Railways was the kingpin of this new free trade region.
Q3 (b) “T