UPSC IAS Mains History Optional Solved Exam Paper - 2009
:: Paper - I ::
Section A
Q1. Marks the following places on the maps supplied to you and write short
descriptive notes on these places marked by you.
1. Koldihwa 2. Kuchai
3. Utnur 4. Balathal
5. Hallur 6. Kandahar
7. Ter 8. Uchh
9. Uttaramerur 10. Sittanavasal
11. Mansura 12. Jaunpur
13. Machilipatnam 14. Mahisadal
15. Patne 16. Bagasra
17. Semthan 18. Gyaraspur
19. Lalkot 20. Daojali Hading
Answer.
Koldihwa-Neolithic archaeological site in Uttar Pradesh state
of northern India dated between 4000-12011 BC. Koldihwa was an agricultural
village of circular huts, with stone axes, bone and stone tools. pottery, and
cattle pens: and early evidence of rice cultivation. found as impressions in
ceramic vessels.
2. Kuchai: Kuchai is a pre-historic site situated at a
distance of 8 km north of Baripad. Orissa Excavations at Kuchai yielded some
Neolithic possessions of man. Potteries found here indicate the development of
Mierolithic culture of the late Stone Age in this area.
3. Utnur: Utnur is a village and a Mandal in Adilabad
district in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India where ashmound of Neolithic age
has been found. This ashmound, famous on account of its excavations by Raymond
and Bridget Allchin in the late 1950s. which found a cattle pen enclosure
beneath the ashmound which had been repeatedly rebuilt on the same alignment
after conflagrations.
4. Balathal: Balathal is a later Harappan site belonging to
Ahar and Gilund culture and dates back to the period of 2500 BC onwards. In
Balathal, the 2,500 B.C. fortification phase reveals a succession of stone
structures inside the fortification and below the wall that ran around the
residential ci..-iplex. There are highbuilt stone platforms on the eastern
edge. This implies that people knew of stone architecture when the settlement
began around 3,500 B.C
5. Hallur: Hallur is an archaeological site located in the
Haveri district in the state of Karnataka. Hallur. South India’s earliest Iron
Age site is located on the banks of the river Tungabhadra. The site was first
discovered by Nagaraja Rao in 1962, and excavated in 1965. The excavations
atHallur by Nagaraja Rao revealed two periods of occupation. Period 1:
NeolithicChalcolithic and Period 11: An overlapping period between Neolithic-Chalcolithic
and early Iron Age.
6. Kandahar: Kandahar takes its name from Gandhara. a kingdom
of ancient India. Gandhara is mentioned in the Mahabharata. The city of Kandahar
was founded in the 4th century BC by Alexander the Great, near the site of the
ancient city of Mundigak (established around 3000 BC). It was ruled by the
Indian emperors Ashoka and Kanishka. Later, it was conquered by the Islamic
invaders and remained under control of non-Indians. Presently it is located in
Afghanistan.
7. Ter: Ancient city of Tagara, now called Ter or Thair,
which lies 16 km NNE of Osmanabad. Ter was well known for the cane-glass beads
during Satavahana age. It was a famous city for commerce and centre of trade
between India and western world. It was an important city and the trade route to
the west.
8. Uchh: With the presence of Muslim culture in the region in
the Ghaznavid period. Uchh was established as center of Persian literature. Abu
al-Faraj Rum and Masud Sad were the two earliest major Indo-Persian poets based
in Uchh. Presently this place is in Pakistan.
9. Uttaramerur: Uttaramerur a town near Chengalpattu in Tamil
Nadu is bestowed with historic riches. It was created as a chaturvedhi mangalam
by Parameswara alias Nandhivarman II. The original name was Uttarameru
chaturvedhi mangalam as the name of the king was uttarameru. It was a village
predominantly vaishnasite and the whole town was laid as per the vaikanasa
aagama. Uttaramerur was studded with temples in the past. It is best known for
its Kudavolai inscription.
10. Sittanavasal: Sittanavasal is a 6th Century AD rock-cut
temple complex in Pudukottai district of Tamil Nadu. This site has an ancient
monastery of the lain thirthankaras. The monastery has paintings and frescoes on
its walls and ceiling. Many of them are typical of the 9th century Pandyan
period and include exquisitely detailed pictures of animals, fish, ducks, people
gathering lotuses from a pond and two dancing figures. There are also
inscriptions dating back to the 9th and 101" centuries.
11. Mansura: The famous city of Mattsura was founded during
the reign of Mansur (754-775 AD) the second Khalifa of the Abbasid dynasty.
Khalifa Harunal-Rashid (786-809 AD) was able to extend the frontiers of Sindh
on its western side. Ruins of Mansura, the medieval Arab capital of Sindh (I I
kin south east of Shahdadpur) testify to the grandeur of the city and the
development of urban life during this period.
12. Jaunpur: The Jaunpur sultanate was an independent kingdom
of northern India between 1394 CE to 1479 CE, whose rulers ruled from Jaunpur in
the present day state of Uttar Pradesh. Jaunpur was known as Shiraz of India
during this period. Mostt notable examples of Sharqi style of architecture in
Jaunpur are the Atala Masjid, the Lal Darwaja Masjid and the Jami Masjid.
13. Machilipatnam: Machilipatnam is a city and a special
grade municipality in the Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh. The town has existed
since the 3rd century. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea calls it Masalia in
the 1st century CE. The port is located on the southeastern, or Coromandel
Coast, of India. Situated in the mouth of the River Krishna on the Bay of
Bengal, the Masula port saw flourishing sea trade.
14. Mahisadal: Mahisadal is a chalcolithic site in the Bi
ihum district in West Bengal. Several tools and weapons of stone have been found
at this site. The remains of this site show that people were living in the
houses made of ntud and bricks. Weapons and bangles of copper belonging to
chalcolithic age have also been found here.
15. Patne: Pane is a place in Maharashtra where a collection
of tools has been found. These tools date back to upper Paleolithic phase of
Stone Age. The tools found at Patne suggest that till that time people were
hunter-gatherer. This site represents the Nevasa culture which flourished in
Maharashtra during the Stone Age.
16. Bagasra: Bagasra is a chacolithic site in the state of
Gujarat. Excavations at Bagasra took place in the year 1997-98 under the
guidance of P. Ajitprasad. Traces of a mature phase of Harappan civilization
have heen found in Bagasra. Remains of residential have been noticed at this
site.
17. Semthan: Sctnthan represents the prehistoric period of
Kashmir. Archaeological excavations at this site have revealed many facts
related to ancient and medieval periods. Excavations have shown different phases
of development. In the first period. some snakeumbrella plates, flower vases
and earthen-pots for cooking rice, etc. were found which were without the upper
necks.
18. Gyaraspur: 41 kin north-east of Sanchi, Gyaraspur was a
place of considerable importance in the medieval period. Here, in the ruins
called Athakhambe (eight pillars) and Chaukhambe (four pillars) are what remain
of the columned halls of two temples belonging to the 9th and 10th centuries AD.
The town’s name is derived from the big fair which used to be held here in the
11 th month, sometimes known as Gyaras.
19. Lalkot: Led Kot, built, by the Tontar was renamed Qila Rai Pithora after
Prithvi Raj Chauhan. It was a thirteen-gated fort in Delhi. Prithviraj. A
Chauhan king, was the second last Hindu king of Delhi.
20. Daojali Hading: Daojali Hading is the oldest excavated site. This is a
neolithic site. Ground and polished stone tools and simple pottery were found
here. Many stone tools of the Palaeolithic age have also been found.
Q2. In what ways are the accounts of the Graeco Romans and the Chinese
helpful in reconstructing the social history of India? How far is their
information corroborated by other Contemporary sources?
Answer:
Most stunning accounts of ancient India have been provided by
the visiting foreigners. The Greeks who accompanied Alexander the Great in his
Indian campaign recorded their encounters of this mystical, magical land.
Although much of these works are now lost, the details have percolated into
subsequent Greek literature. Special reference can be made of the Indica by
Megasthenes who lived in the court of Chandragupta Maurya, of Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea by an unknown businessman (second half of 1st century A.D) and The
Geography of India by Ptolemy (about 130 A.D.) After the spread of Buddhism,
Chinese travelers came to India in big numbers to collect religious books and to
visit the holy places of Buddhism. Works of Fa-Hien (5th century A.D),
Hewn-Tsang (7th century A.D.) and I-Tsing (7th century A.D.) are important
historical accounts. The foreign accounts, while lacking native understanding of
the complex culture of ancient Indians, do provide valuable objective
documentation as also confirm some of the glories claimed in Indian
inscriptions.
The Smritis and accounts of Fa-Hien are the chief sources of
knowledge about the social life of the Guptas. Fa-Hien had stayed in India for a
long period of 9 years, from 401 to 410 A.D. and visited various places of north
India, including Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal. He had spent several
years in Pataliputra and Tamralipta. Therefore he could have had a firsthand
knowledge of the social life of the Guptas. According to his accounts, people
were very happy during the period of the Guptas and were free to move anywhere.
Since public morality was very high during that time, therefore criminal law was
lenient. People were mainly vegetarian and did not even eat onion or garlic. The
habit of drinking wine among people was rare. Only the Chandalas and the
sweepers drank wine and ate meat. However, they lived outside the towns and
villages.
The representation of society as described by Fa-Hien depicts
that town-dwellers lived a comfortable life and enjoyed a good standard of
living. People living in the outskirts, like the Chandalas, were not so well of.
Villagers lived on the production of their own cultivations and products
manufactured by their artisans. “Kamasutra” indicates the comfortable life of
the well-to-do citizens of towns. “Kamasutra” depicts the refinement and leisure
of city life. It is presumed by historians that the city people beguiled
themselves with poetry, writing and painting. Gatherings were held where poetry
was recited and dancing performances were held. Youth of upper classes played
the lute and practiced singing and even received training in the art of love, as
Kamasutra testifies. Joint-family system was actually the general rule of family
life. The head of the family governed the family unit. But Smritis also dictates
the partition of family and familial properties.
The male members dominated the family and society. Though women were
subordinate to men in society, yet their position was no less significant.
Women in Gupta society were idealized in literature. Basham
has pointed out that ancient literature presented contradictory attitude towards
women. While women were respected as anchors of the family, at the same time
were mother of children and the friend of husband, a living goddess.
Dandin in “Dashakumara-charita” had proposed disparaging
remarks about women in a class. He had described them as quarrelsome and
disgusting. Education was permitted in a limited way to the upper class women in
Gupta civilization. They not only participated in public life, but there is also
reference to women teachers. There are instances also that those women used to
take part in governmental and administrative functions. Much of the foreign
sources on India, namely the travelogues of explorers have been assembled
through second hand information and it is difficult to differentiate realities
from hearsay. Megasthnes talks about seven classes in the Indian society. He
also mentions that there was no slave system in India. But actually being a
foreigner he could not understand the social structure and stratification of
Indian society. During that time slave system was prevalent in India but it was
completely different from that of Europe. In fact slaves in India had rather
more freedom in comparison to their counterparts in Greece.
Q3. (a) Evaluate the various approaches to the understanding of Vedic
religion.
Answer:
The four Vedas; Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas are seen
as Sruti, “heard,” as Revelation and “not human-originated”. Human beings, wise
and holy sages, seers and prophets were the human channels of the revealed
wisdom. They “heard” in their hearts the eternal messages and “saw” and
symbolized various names and forms of the One, Sacred, Ultimate Reality, Truth,
and God from different perspectives and contexts. The Hindu gods and goddesses,
worshipped with different names and forms and qualities are, in reality, many
aspects, powers, functions, and symbols of the only one all pervasive Supreme
Being, without a second. The Upanishads, later portions in the Vedas, teach that
salvation/liberation is achieved in an experiential way and that oneness with
the supreme Reality, Brahman, is possible; the supreme goal. Brahman, is also
the One Self, the higher self found in all.
There are several hymns in the Vedas and other scriptures
which categorically declare that there are different approaches and perspectives
to God and experience of God and ultimate reality. This also arises,
necessarily, from different human contexts. The central teaching, constantly
repeated, is: God is one, but names and forms are many; symbols and paths are
many. Thus, there arose a rich theological and philosophical pluralism within
Hinduism creating an internal “parliament of sub-traditions and subreligions,”
but all grounded in the unity of the Vedas and One Brahman. Also, multiplicity
is encouraged and thrives by means of the free choice and self-determined
identification with one specially loved manifestation of God, Shiva, Krishna,
Shakti, Rama, and so on, in pursuing the moral and spiritual path to salvation/
liberation. Because people are at different starting points and stations, Hindu
scriptures affirm and accept variety in religious experiences as a necessity and
psychological reality.
Multiplicity brings with it differences, which one cannot
destroy or do away with, Yet, the deep commonalities in structures of religious
experience and in the profound moral values found in all religions are to be
constantly probed and appropriated for the development of a deeper spiritual and
human solidarity and fellowship, transcending the cultural and other barriers.
Q3 (b). Give an account of the use of gold coins by commoners in the Gupta
Period.
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Q4. Bring out the regional variations in the early South Indian Templets
architectural styles.
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Section B
Q5. Write short essays the following:
(a) Applicability of the term Radian Feudatismi to early Medieval Society.
Answer:
The post-classical period in India is usually looked at from
the perspective of the political aftermath of the Muslim invasions and not as a
situation which developed out of a continuous historical process. Early medieval
period was the time when feudalism had taken its firm roots in Indian society at
least in terms of economic relationships.
The social structure encompassed local lords with pre-eminent
social and political status in the area. The key figures of early medieval India
were thus various groups of samantas, mahasamantas, mandalesvaras,
mahamandalesvaras. rajakulas. rajaputras. These all were basically landed
magnates but known by various regional expressions. The relationship between
them and the heads of numerous royal families was perhaps variously defined and
the system of court hierarchy in a kingdom was determined by the nature of this
relationship. Such a situation fostered military adventurism which is reflected
in the continuous formation of ruling dynasties. This process is tacitly
admitted in contemporary political theory in which the concept of king received
a flexible definition.
Some of the early medieval kingdoms were located in the
perennial centres of power: others arose in relatively isolated zones and marked
the beginning of new social processes in those areas. As in the earlier periods,
these dynasties and kingdoms too desired legitimization within a Brahmanical
framework. The political elites were thus dependent on the priestly class and
such existing institutions as temples for securing effective grip over the areas
they ruled. The brahmadeyas or predominantly Brahman villages were distributed
throughout their territorial units, and deliberations of systematically
constituted assemblies in such villages, consisting only of Brahman members,
show that religious pursuits were not their only concern. The other category of
grants, the devadanas, made the temple a focal point of activities not only in
rurall areas but, in some cases, in urban areas as well. Thus post-classical
period represents a major structural change in Indian society. The economy was
ruralized, and the vast number of assignments, resulting in the development of
landed intermediaries, introduced feudal characteristics in it.
Trade declined, urban centres fell into decay, and the old
manufacturing guilds came to be reduced to the insignificant position of low
sub-castes. The impressions that the sources give are those of a predominantly
rural society organized in such a way as to yield the maximum quantum of revenue
to the state. Trading activities had a comparatively subservient role in this
political structure. Moreover, the emergence of regions was not merely a
political process; it had several cultural facets as well. The formation of
castes was the result of acculturation and occupational changes, and an analysis
of this process alone can provide an index of the cultural dynamics of the area.
The same dynamics may be located in the chronological stages of the growth of
regional languages. Sanskrit continued the official language, but what was
typicall of a region found the language of the area to be its best vehicle. This
urge went to the extent of even regionalizing the epics.
Q5 (b). Muhammad Tughluq as an agrarian innovator.
Answer:
Among sultans of Delhi Saltanate Muhammad Tughlaq was most
controversial. In fact he was a well read person and used to believe in new
ideas and experimentations. He had new visions and he wanted to implement them
to benefit his kingdom. The experiment undertaken by him in the field of
agriculture was one such step which failed him though he started some new trends
which bore fruit in later times. In 1329-30 Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a
token currency. There was a shortage of silver throughout the world in the
fourteenth century. Kublai Khan issued paper money in China. In the same manner,
Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued copper coins at par with the value of the silver
tanka coins. But he was not able to prevent forging the new coins. The
goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale. Soon the new coins
were not accepted in the markets.
Finally, Muhammad bin Tughlaq stopped the circulation of
token currency and promised to exchange ‘ silver coins for the copper coins.
Many people exchanged the new coins but the treasury became empty. The failure
of the experiments affected the prestige of the Sultan and enormous money was
wasted. In order to overcome financial difficulties, Muhammad bin Tughlaq
increased the land revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and
Yamuna rivers). It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A severe
famine was also ravaging that region at that time. It had resulted in a serious
peasant revolts. However, the Sultan realized later that adequate relief
measures and the promotion of agriculture were the real solution to the problem.
He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given
to the farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation. A separate department for
agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established. Model farm under the state was
created in an area of 64 square miles for which the government spent seventy
lakh tankas. It was a kind of modern style of farming in which he invested a lot
though finally this experiment also failed him. But he set a good precedent of
experimenting with agriculture and cash cropping.
Q5 (c). Implications of Akbaris notion of Sulh-i-kul.
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Q5 (d). Estimates of population of Mughal India.
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6. (a) How far can the village assemblies or communities under the Cholas
be really called democratic.
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Q6 (b). Assess Kalhanas views on History.
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8. (a) Give a critical assessment of the contributions of Amir Khusarau and
Barani to Indo Persian Literature.
Answer:
Whether Khusrau composed any poetry in Hindi or not, and
whether the riddles and other dohas ascribed to him are his or not, is a debate
that may have begun in nineteenth century when scholars started collecting and
compiling Khusrau’s poetry. So far no authentic document containing Khusrau’s
Hindvi poetry has been found which would date back to earlier than 18th century
AD, unlike those containing his Persian works which are as old as 500 years or
even older. Though Khusrau himself has mentioned at many places in his Persian
books that he loves writing in Hindvi and has dispensed with such works (of
Hindvi poetry) amongst his friends, he himself probably didn’t bother to
preserve them in any written form. One of the most prolific genres that Amir
Khusrau is ascribed to have composed is Paheli (riddle). Pahelis are short
pieces of verse with usually two or four lines in rhyme, using an array of,
similes, analogies and other symbols in a clever, tongue-and-cheek play of words
to conceal their meanings or answer.
Amir Khusrau who had a special attachment with the common
folk and their language of expression, may have started using this genre in his
playful interaction with the people. In the present version of his riddles he
seems to have toyed with words of Braj, Haryanvi and Khadi boli, blended a few
phrases of Persian with some expressions of Sanskrit. Some of his works include
Tuhfa-tus-Sighr (Offering of a Minor) his first divan. Wastul-Hayat (The Middle
of Life) his second divan containing poems composed at the peak of his poetic
career, Ghurratul-Kamaal (The Prime of Perfection) poems composed between the
age of 34 and 43 Baqia-Naqia (The Rest/The Miscellany) compiled at the age of
64, Qissa Chahar Darvesh, Nihayatul-Kamaal and Qiran-us-Sa’dain.
Ziauddin Barani was an Muslim historian and political thinker
who lived in India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah’s reign. He was
best known for composing the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, a major historical work on
medieval India, which covers the period from the reign of Ghiyas uddin Balban to
the first six years of reign of Firuz Shah Tughluq and the Fatwa-i-Jahandari
which details the Muslim Caste System in South Asia. The Fatwa-i-Jahandari is a
work containing the political ideals to he pursued by a Muslim ruler in order to
earn religious merit and the gratitude of his subjects. The Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi
was an interpretation of the history of the Delhi Sultanate up to the
then-present Firuz Shah Tughlaq. His other works in Persian are Salvat-i-Kabir,
Sanai-Muhammadi, Hasratnama and Inayatnama.
Q8 (b). The major cause of revolts against the Mughal Empire during the
latter half of the 17th century were economic , rather than religious. Discuss.
Ans: Many subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb’s policies,
among them his own son, Prince Akbar. In 1667, the Yusufzai Pashtuns and in
1669, the Jars around Mathura revolted. In 1672, the Satnami, a sect
concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan and some
Satnami, took over the administration of Narnaul, but they were eventually
crushed upon Aurangzeb’s personal intervention with very few escaping alive.
Soon afterwards the Atridi Pashtuns in the northwest also revolted, and
Aurangzeb was forced to lead his army personally to Hasan Abdal to subdue them.
The Ahoms (the people of Shan community of Burma or Myanmar)
were the kings who had established their kingdom in the basin of river
Bramhaputra and made it impossible for the Mughals to conquer that area. The
role of the economic factor was the leading factor of these rebellions. Emperor
assigned a certain piece of land to the officials in lieu of their pay and also
to enable them to defray the expenses over their troops on condition of their
paying a sum to the Emperor out of the surplus revenue. Such grants were called
Jagirs. Since they were mainly grants of revenue out of which the holders (Who
were usually Mansabdars) maintained their quota of troops for the Empire, the
tendency was to fix revenue at the highest possible rate almost equal to the
surplus produce. Even this high rate went on increasing with the passage of
time.
Under the circumstances the peasants were financially hit
very hard. They were usually left with the barest minimum needed for supporting
their lives. What added further to the hardships of the cultivators was the
frequent transfer of the jagirs to different assignees. The jagirdars held their
jagirs at the pleasure of the Emperor. This constant insecurity of the tenure of
office proved unfortunate in two ways. Firstly it offered little incentive to
the holders to exert for alleviating the distress of their tenancy. Instead it
led them to employ all possible tactics to extort money from the Peasantry.
Secondly, quite often at the time of the transfer the hard hit peasants of the
same Jagir were pressurized to pay the same sum twice, first to the collectors
of the outgoing jagirdar and then to those of the incoming one. Thus this system
ended in a mad looting of the peasants by the rival collectors. If the peasants
refused to pay the revenue, very severe punishment was meted out to them. At
times they were left with no other option than to sell their women, children and
cattle, or to run away from their home to avoid extermination through-ill
treatment.
:: Paper - II ::
Q1. Comment on the following statements:
(a) Though the Permanent Settlement had serious defects, it gave tranquility
to the countryside and stability to the governments.
Answer:
The most famous measure of Lord Cornwallis was the Permanent
Settlement of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, concluded in 1793, when the then
existing assessment of land revenue, which had been made for ten years, was
declared to be perpetual. Two years later the same supposed boon was conferred
upon Banaras carried out by Lord Cornwallis against the advice. but with the
help, of his most esteemed councillor, Sir John Shore. The question of
incentives now being understood to be central, the security of tenure of
landlords was guaranteed: in short, the former landholders and revenue
intermediaries were granted effective ownership to the land they held. In
addition, the land tax was fixed in perpetuity, so as to minimise the tendency
by British administrators to amass a small fortune in sluiced-away revenue.
Smallholders were no longer permitted to sell their land,
though they could not be expropriated by their new landlords. Incentives to
zamindars in this case was intended to encourage improvements of the land, such
as drainage, irrigation and the construction of roads and bridges; such
infrastructure had been insufficient through out it Bengal. With a fixed land
tax, zamindars could securely invest in increasing their income without any fear
of having the increase taxed away by the Company. Cornwallis made this
motivation quite clear, declaring that when the demand of government is fixed,
an opportunity is afforded to the landholder of increasing his profits, by the
improvement of his lands.
The immediate consequence of the Permanent Settlement was
both very sudden and dramatic, and one which nobody had apparently foreseen. By
ensuring that zamindars’ lands were held in perpetuity and with a fixed tax
burden, they became desirable commodities. In addition, the government tax
demand was inflexible and the British East India Company’s collectors refused to
make allowances for times of drought, flood or other natural disaster. The tax
demand was higher than that in England at the time. As a result, many zamindars
immediately fell into arrears.
The Company’s policy of auction of any zamindari lands deemed
to be in arrears created a market for land which previously did not exist. Many
of the new purchasers of this land were Indian officials within the East India
Company’s government. These bureaucrats were ideally placed to purchase lands
which they knew to be under assessed, and therefore profitable. In addition,
their position as officials gave them opportunity to quickly acquire the wealth
necessary to purchase land through bribery and corruption. They could also
manipulate the system to bring to sale land that they specifically wanted.
Historian Bernhard Cohn and others have argued that the Permanent Settlement led
firstly to a commercialization of land which previously did not exist in Bengal.
And secondly, as a consequence of this, it led to a change in the social
background of the ruling class from ‘ lineages and local chiefs” to “under civil
servants and their descendants, and to merchants and bankers. The new landlords
were different in their outlook; often they were absentee landlords who managed
their land through managers and who had little attachment to their land.
Q1 (b). The Arya Samaj may quite logically be pronounced as
the outcomes of conditions imported into India by the west (Lala Lajpat Rai)
Answer:
The Arya Samaj was undoubtedly the most dynamic
socio-religious reform movement modern society has ever seen. Though the Arya
Samaj was primarily concerned with social and religious reforms, its political
impact was most conspicuous. The ideal of that society, as proclaimed by its
founder is an absolutely free and independent form of nation. Swami Dayanand and
the powerful organization he initiated, the Arya Samaj clearly unquestionably
were the most potent factors in reforming, rejuvenating and rebuilding the
institutions of India’s political emancipation. India tinder British rule was
being exploited both economically and culturally. But people were still ignorant
of the reality. They were divided due to prevalaence of the dogmatism and a
number of social inhibitions.
The education imposed on India was also not up to the mark.
It was intended to serve the interest of the Bristishers. In this condition
social reforms were the need of the hour. In 1875, for the first time in the
history of modern India. Swami Dayanand made a forceful plea for India’s
political independence, “Say what you will and self-government is by far the
best.” A foreign government perfectly free from religious prejudices, impartial
towards all the natives and foreigners - kind, beneficial and just though it may
he can never render the people perfectly happy. Swami Dayanand was the first to
rise against British dominion, the first Indian to use the word Swaraj,
self-government. With unerring instinct Swami Dayanand hit upon the
psychological factors which were bound to bring about the fall of a ruling
power. He was shrewd enough to hint merely at the eventuality of the loss of
power by the British, without directly mentioning them by names.
Q1 (c). Please remember, in granting separate electorates we are sowing
the dragonsis teeth and harvest will be bitter. (Morley)
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Q1 (d). The annexation of Awadh shook the loyalty of the Sepoys, as it was
for them an ultimate proof of untrustworthiness of the British.
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2. (a) Why Mysore was considered a threat by the British to their
possessions and mercantile interests in the south? Do you think that Tipu
Sultanis posturing became his undoing?
Answer:
East India Company had both strategic and commercial interest
in Mysore province. Front commercial point of view the Karnataka region was
important for export and import. There were some important ports located in the
province of Mysore.
Firstly with the capture and annexation of Mysore would give
East India Company an added advantage in the trade. Secondly. the Mysore plain
was also very fertile and it would have been very good source of revenue for the
company administration. In addition to it. Mysore had become a formidable state
under Haider and Tipu. They had posed a great challenge to the British power.
Tipu was very ambitious and lie had taken several measures to modernize his
army. He had good relationship with France, the old enemy of British power. Tipu
Sultan was the innovator of the world’s first war rocket. Two of these rockets,
captured by the British at Srirangapatna. are displayed in the Royal Artillery
Museum in London. Most of Tippu Sultan’s campaigns resulted in successes. He
managed to subdue all the petty kingdoms in the south. He defeated the Marathas
and the Nizams and was also one of the few Indian rulers to have defeated
British armies. In alliance with the French in their struggle with the British
both Tipu Sultan and Haider Ali did not hesitate to use their French trained
army against the Marathas, Sira, Malabar. Coorg and Bcdnur. Tipu fought against
East India Company bravely unto the last. But he could not get the support of
any other regional powers against Company’s forces. But the posture he took was
brilliant and what he did was ahead of his time.
Q2 (b). How did the East India Company became the dejure power in India?
Answer:
The British with their superior naval power support from home
were the next who like the numerous invaders and adventurers of the past would
establish their dominion in India. The diplomatic moves of East India Company
were clever. The favourable conditions created by the disintegration of the
Mughal Empire invited the English to seek political power in India. The
political aspirations of the Company bore fruit from Bengal. Owing to the
incompetence of Siraj-ud daula the Nawab of Bengal. he had lost the loyalty of
his nobles who conspired against him. The misuse of the privileges given to the
English and the fortification of the settlement invoked the displeasure of the
Nawab who ordered their demolition. The inhuman act of the Nawabs subordinate
resulting in the Black hole tragedy resulted in involvement of Robert Clive and
Admiral Watson in an attempt to subdue the Nawab. After the capture of Calcutta
by Robert Clive he entered into a treaty which proved the only advantageous
solution for both at present. The diplomatic designs of Clive bore fruit when he
learnt of the discontented nobles of the Nawabs who were ready to go against the
authority of the Nawab .
On the 23rd of the June 1757 the antics of the Nawab
Siraj-ud-daula and Robert Clive met in a battle at Plassey. The Nawab’s nobles
who deflected as decided with the English did not support the Nawab, leading to
his defeat. This was the major achievement of the English that was to act as the
foundation of British rule in India. It also started a political gamble by the
Company officials who now conspired against Mir Jafar and promised the throne to
Mir gasim in return for money.
Mir jafar was disposed by the English and Mir gasim was given
the administration of Bengal. His quarrels with the Company over duties and
articles and trade exposed his intention to break off from the yoke of British
dominance.
This ultimately resulted in the battle of Buxar in 1764. A
fierce battle resulted. The superior military power of the English had confirmed
the English victory and thus they became the masters of Bengal and now were the
sole contenders for the control of the whole country. Later when Warren Hastings
became the Governor General of India, he took direct control of administration
which culminated in 1803 when Mughal Emperor was finally deposed and East India
Company became the dejure power in India.
3. (a) How did social legislation in the nineteenth century improve the
condition of women in India?
Answer:
With the beginning of the social reform movement in 18th and
19th century in India the British government had to rethink its policies
concerning Indian society. Child marriage, female child infanticide suicide by
widows and illiteracy among women were the main social problems in India. It had
divided the society and stalled the process of development in the country. The
first step towards social legislation was taken by William Bentinck. He brought
a law in 1929 by which sari piatha was declared illegal. Though the law could be
implemented in its full scale but at least it created some kind of awareness
that this practice of committing suicide by widow women was inhuman and it
should be prevented at any cost. Hence it helped to reduce the number of such
incidents. In 1795 and again in 1803 infanticide was made illegal by John Shore
and Wellesley. This practice was prevalent among the Rajput community.
With the ban on this practice infanticide disappeared
gradually. Again child marriage was also a common affair at that time. Many of
them had to live their life in isolation in case of their husband’s death.
Ishwar Chard Vidyasagar started a campaign for widow remarriage and in this
campaign Raja Rain Mohan Roy also vehemently supported him. Their effort bore
fruit and in 1956 widow remarriage act was passed which allowed remarriage of a
widow. Though its practical implications were negligible but it made any such
act legal and thus tried to change the old prevailing dogmatic notion. In 1929
Sharda Act was passed which made child marriage illegal. In 1872 inter-caste
marriage was also made legal. All these laws served as an eye opener and
prepared a ground for the women emancipation though on implementation level
there were few examples when people were ready to accept them in their daily
lives.
Q3 (b). Analyze the social composition of the early Congress leadership.
Answer:
Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. Its founding
members belonged to educated middle class. They had got English education and
had firm faith in British providence. They warned to improve the condition of
Indian people under the guidance of British benevolence. They had no mass
support. They wanted to keep their movement restricted to upper middle class as
they were of opinion that people in general were not educated enough to
understand the basic need of the hour. Its founding members proposed economic
reforms and wanted a larger role in the making of British policy for India. By
1907, however. the Congress had split into a moderate group led by Gopal Krishna
Gokhale . who sought dominion status for India, and a militant faction under Bal
Gangadhar Tilak , who demanded self-rule. Early Congressmen who dominated the
affairs of the Indian National Congress from 1885 to 19115 were known as the
Moderates. They belonged to a class which was Indian in blood and colour but
British in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. They were supporters
of British institutions. They believed that what India needed was a balanced and
lucid presentation of her needs before the Englishmen and their Parliament. They
had faith in the British sense of justice. The Moderates believed in orderly
progress and constitutional agitation. They believed in patience, steadiness,
conciliation and union.
The Moderates believed in constitutional agitation within the
four corners of law. They believed that their main task was to educate the
people, to arouse national political consciousness and to create a united public
opinion on political questions. For this purpose they held meetings. They
criticized the Government through the press. They drafted and submitted
memorials and petitions to the Government. to the officials of the Government of
India and also to the British Parliament. They also worked to influence the
British Pa.liantent and British public opinion. The object of the memorials and
petitions was to enlighten the British public and political leaders about the
conditions prevailing in India. Deligations of leading Indian leaders were sent
to Britain in 1889. The basic weakness of the Moderates lay in their narrow
social base. Their movement did not have a wide appeal. The area of their
influence was limited to the urban community. As they did not have the support
of the masses. they declared that the time was not ripe for throwing out a
challenge to the foreign rulers.
4. (a) Discuss as to why the Congress accepted the partition of India in
1947.
Answer:
The Congress was not consistent on the Partition. On April 2,
1942, the Congress Working Committee criticized the secessionist idea. But at
the same time Congress committee said that it cannot think in terms of
compelling the people of any territorial unit to remain in the Indian Union
against their declared and established will. Its election manifesto of 1945
reiterated this principle, thus setting at naught the Jagat Narain Lal
resolution, adopted by the All India Congress Committee (AICC) on May 2, 1942,
which ruled out liberty to any component State or territorial unit to secede.
Rajaji’s formula, in March 1944, accepted plebiscite on Partition in areas where
in the Muslim population is in absolute majority. On September 24, 1944 Gandhi
himself offered Jiunah his plan for “two sovereign independent States” with a
Treaty of Separation on defense, foreign affairs, etc. Thus, from 1940 onwards,
the trend was unmistakably against India’s unity. Both Gandhi and the Congress
had accepted the principle of Partition, based on consent of the areas
concerned. Time was fast running out on India’s unity.
The British government’s statement on December 6,1946
rejected the Congress interpretation of the grouping formula and expressed its
view that here has never been any prospect of success for the Constituent
Assembly except upon the basis of the agreed procedure. Should a Constitution
come to be framed by the Constituent Assembly in which a large section-of the
Indian population had not been represented, His Majesty’s Government could not,
of course, contemplate as the Congress have stated they would not contemplate
forcing such a Constitution upon any unwilling parts of thee country. This gave
the Congress one of two choices - unqualified acceptance of the Cabinet
Mission’s Plan or Partition. It preferred the latter. Once again, Gandhi
rejected the Plan. But the direct action day observed by Muslim league and the
following incidents of Hindu-Muslim riot made Congress believe that partition
was the only option if otherwise there could be lasting peace even if British
leave India. And so Congress accepted the partition.
Q4 (b). Do you think that Quit India movement was a Spontaneous Revolution?
Answer:
After civil Disobedience Movement no mass movement was led
against British rule in India. Even this movement had to be called off half way
not most of the sections of India and within Congress itself were not satisfied
with the gains they could get so far. There was a great resentment among public
and it was just a matter of time when they would raise against the foreigners.
They got this opportunity during world war second, In 1939, with the outbreak of
war between Germany and Britain, India was announced to be a party to the war
for being a constituent component of the British Empire. Following this
declaration, the Congress Working Committee at its meeting on 10th October,
1939, passed a resolution condemning the aggressive activities of the Germans.
At the same time the resolution also stated that India could not associate
herself with war as it was against Fascism. There was hardly any difference
between British colonialism and Nazi totalitarianism.
In the meanwhile, crucial political events took place in
England. In the context of widespread dissatisfaction that prevailed over the
rejection of the demands made by the Congress, Gandhi at the meeting of the
Congress Working Committee in Wardha revealed his plan to launch Individual
Civil Disobedience. In Europe the war situation became more critical with the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the Congress realized the necessity for
appraising their program. Subsequently, the movement was withdrawn.
The Cripps’ Mission and its failure also played an important
role in Gandhi’s call for The Quit India Movement. In -order to end the
deadlock, the British government on 22nd March, 1942, sent Sir Stafford Cripps
to talk terms with the Indian political parties and secure their support in
Britain’s war efforts. But it failed. Sir Stafford Cripps left the country
amidst unprecedented excitement. In order to give effect to the Mahatma’s views,
The Congress Working Committee adopted the well known ‘Quit India’ Resolution on
July 14th 1942 at Wardha. The All India Congress Committee accepted this
resolution with some modifications, on 8th August, 1942 in Bombay. The very next
day, on 9th August, eminent Congress leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Vallabhbhai
Patel, Jaeaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad were arrested. The masses were left
without any guidance. Gandhi’s ‘do or die’ call for the people created an
upheaval in the country. This ruined the atmosphere of non- violence in the
country. Unlike the other two movements, the Non-Co-Operation and the Civil
Disobedience Movement that unleashed under the aegis of Mahatma Gandhi, the Quit
India Movement captures the quintessence of a ‘spontaneous’ rising by the
people.
5. Comment on the following statements:
(a) The capitalism which gave the European empires their apparent solidarity and
permanence also hastened their downfall.
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Q5 (b). In all the long annals of Imperialism, the partition of Africa is
a remarkable freak.
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Q5 (c). Hitler did not really want a World War. His intention was only a
short war with Polandi (A. J. P. Taylar)
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Q5 (d). Arab nationalism and oil n these were the principal factors in
complicating the relations of Middle Eastern countries with the outside world.
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6. (a) Discuss the emergence of neo-imperialism in the late nineteenth
century.
Answer:
On adopted by Europe’s powers and, later, Japan and the
United States, during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Expansion approximately
took place from the Franco-Prussian War to World War I. The period is
distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed “empire for
empire’s sake,” aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and
the emergence in some colonizing countries of doctrines of racial superiority
which purported to explain the unfitness of backward peoples for
self-government. The rise of the New Imperialism overlaps with the Pax
Britannica period.
The American Revolution and the collapse of the Spanish
empire in the New World in the early 1810-20s, following the revolutions in the
viceroyalties of New Spain, New Granada, Peru and the Rio de la Plata ended the
first era of European empire. The erosion of British hegemony after the
Franco-Prussian War was occasioned by changes in the European and world
economies and in the continental balance of power following the breakdown of the
Concert of Europe, the balance of power established by the Congress of Vienna.
The establishment of nation-states in Germany and Italy resolved territorial
issues that had kept potential rivals embroiled in internal affairs at the heart
of Europe (to Britain’s advantage).
Economically, adding to the commercial competition of old
rivals like France were now the newly industrializing powers, such as Germany
and the United States. Needing external markets for their manufactured goods,
all sought ways to challenge Britain’s dominance in world trade the consequence
of its early industrialization. This competition was sharpened by the Long
Depression of 1873-1896, a prolonged period of price deflation punctuated by
severe business downturns, which added to pressure on governments to promote
home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among
Europe’s powers.
The resulting limitation of both domestic markets and export
opportunities led government and business leaders in Europe, and later the U.S.,
to see the solution in sheltered overseas markets united to the home country
behind imperial tariff barriers: new overseas colonies would provide export
markets free of foreign competition, while supplying cheap raw materials. The
revival of working-class militancy and emergence of socialist parties during the
Depression decades led conservative governments to view colonialism as a force
for national cohesion in support of the domestic status quo. Also, in Italy, and
to a lesser extent in Germany and Britain, tropical empires in India and Burma
were seen as outlets for what was deemed a surplus home population. These
factors necessitated the second phase of imperialism.
Q6 (b). What was the extent of industrialization in Western Europe by the
end of the nineteenth century?
Answer:
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Great Britain
experienced a massive increase in agricultural productivity known as the British
Agricultural Revolution, which enabled an unprecedented population growth,
freeing a significant percentage of the workforce from farming, and helping to
drive the Industrial Revolution. Due to the limited amount of arable land and
the overwhelming efficiency of mechanized farming, the increased population
could not be dedicated to agriculture. New agricultural techniques allowed a
single peasant to feed more workers than previously: however, these techniques
also increased the demand for machines and other hardware, which had
traditionally been provided by the urban artisans. Artisans, collectively called
bourgeoisie, employed rural exodus workers to increase their output and meet the
country’s needs. The growth of their business coupled with the lack of
experience of the new workers pushed a rationalization and standardization of
the duties in workshops, thus leading to a division of labour. The process of
creating a good was divided into simple tasks, each one of them being gradually
mechanized in order to boost productivity and thus increase income. The
accumulation of capital allowed investments in the conception and application of
new technologies, enabling the industrialization process to continue to evolve.
The industrialization process formed a class of industrial
workers who had more money to spend than their agricultural cousins. They spent
this on items such as tobacco and sugar; creating new mass markets which
stimulated more investment as merchants sought to exploit them. The
mechanization of production spread to the countries surrounding England in
western and northern Europe and to British settler colonies, helping to make
those areas the wealthiest, and shaping what is now known as the Western world.
It spread to Holland, France, Germany and France also. Some economic historians
argue that the possession of socalled ‘exploitation colonies’ eased the
accumulation of capital to the countries that possessed them, speeding up their
development. The consequence was that the subject country integrated a bigger
economic system in a subaltern position, emulating the countryside which demands
manufactured goods and offers raw materials, while the metropolis stressed its
urban posture, providing goods and importing food. A classical example of this
mechanism is said to be the triangular trade, which involved England, southern
United States and western Africa. Critics argue that this polarity still affects
the world. and has deeply retarded the industrialization of what is now known as
the Third World.
7. (a) How did Napoleon Bonaparte fuse the old France with the new?
Answer:
It was Napoleon’s function in history to fuse the old France
with the new. Napoleon declared that he wanted to cement peace at home by
anything that could bring the French together and provide tranquility within
families. Like Mirabeau. Napoleon didn’t see an incompatibility between the
Revolution and monarchy. Napoleon did what the Bourbon King could not do. He
reconciled the elements of the monarchy with elements of the Revolution which
was the failed goal of Mirabeau in 1790. Napoleon was largely successful in
attracting men from all parties front ex-Jacobins to nobles, to his government.
Signing the Concordat (15 July, 1801) allowed Napoleon to reconcile the
religious differences which had torn France apart during the Revolution. At the
same time, the Concordat insured religious freedom. It recognized Catholicism
ass the religion of the majority of the French, but did not make it an
“established” religion as the Church of England was in Britain. Protestants and
Jews were allowed to practice their religion and retain their civic rights.
A general amnesty signed by Napoleon (26 April, 1802) allowed
all but about one thousand of the most notorious emigrants to return to France.
These two actions helped to bring relative tranquility to those areas of France
which had long been at war with the Revolution. Albert Sobould has written that
stabilizing society on the fundamental base of the Revolution. Napoleon
integrated the returned emigrants into a new social hierarchy; and, while
reinforcing the principle of authority, he merged these emigrants into a new
order which at first had been constructed against them. Of the three key
principles of the Revolution -liberty, equality, and fraternity, it was liberty
which suffered most tinder Napoleon. The French desiring to safeguard what they
had acquired during the R e volution. Many felt that guarantee could come only
with the restoration and preservation of order. They were willing to sacrifice
their liberties for that guarantee, for that order. In the absence of political
liberty, he would assure Frenchmen of their individual rights. In the Napoleonic
Code, he would sanctify equality, their dearest possession. He would keep most
of the revolutionary institutions while at times amalgamating them with those of
the Old Regime.
Q7 (b). Why did Vietnam go through thirty years of war after the Second
World War?
Answer:
The Vietnam War was the legacy of France’s failure to
suppress nationalist forces in Indochina as it struggled to restore its colonial
dominion after World War II. Led by Ho Chi Minh, a Communistdominated
revolutionary movement waged a political and military struggle for Vietnamese
independence that frustrated the efforts of the French and resulted ultimately
in their ouster from the region. Vietnam had gained its independence from France
in 1954. The country was divided into North and South. The North had a communist
government led by Ho Chi Minh. The South had an anti-communist government led by
Ngo Dinh Diem. The Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and
Chinese intervention against the United Nations in Korea made U.S.-China policy
a captive of Cold War politics. Those events also helped to transform American
anti-colonialism to support for the French protectorates in Indochina, and later
for their non-Communist successors. American political and military leaders
viewed the Vietnam War as the Chinese doctrine of revolutionary warfare in
action (using Chinese and Soviet arms, to boot). The overarching geopolitical
aim behind the United States’ involvement in Vietnam was to contain the spread
of communism in Southeast Asia.
To accomplish this aim, the United States supported an
anti-communist regime known as the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in its
fight against a communist take-over. South Vietnam faced a serious, dual-tracked
threat: a communist-led revolutionary insurgency within its own borders and the
military power of its communist neighbor and rival, the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (North Vietnam). Preventing South Vietnam from falling to the communists
ultimately led the United States to fight a major regional war in Southeast
Asia. The North Vietnamese regime, which received outside assistance from the
communist great powers, the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China,
proved a formidable adversary. The United States strategy generally proceeded
from the premise that the essence of the problem in Vietnam was military, with
efforts to “win the hearts and minds” of the South Vietnamese populace taking
second place.
To frustrate North Vietnamese and Viet Cong efforts, and in
part to contain China, the United States eventually fielded an army of over
500,000 men and engaged in extensive air and naval warfare against North
Vietnam. The American military effort provoked stiff domestic and international
opposition, led to strained civil-military relations at home, and called into
question many of the assumptions that had dominated US foreign and military
policy since 1945, but failed to compel the enemy to do its will.
8. (a) Account for the overthrow of the Tsarist regime in Russia.
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Q8 (b). Examine the peace keeping efforts of the United Nations
Organization.
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