2014-02-10



Here’s the latest round of Common Core legislation that has been filed.  There’s too many to do individual articles so I wanted to get caught up and mention them in one article.  As a recap I’ll also mention bills I’ve already written about.  I’m sure I’m also missing legislation, my apologies if I miss your state.  Taking in Common Core news (and my inbox) is like drinking from a fire hose.  If I missed something leave a comment and I will add it – this is a work in progress.  Also if you have an update on the status of a certain bill I’d love to hear from you as well.

Alabama:

Alabama has had several good bills last session, but there’s nothing new to report at the moment.  There is support to pass a repeal bill this year, but any attempt will be hung up by one man – Senate President Pro Tem Del Marsh.

Arizona:

SB 1121: Primary sponsors: State Senators Kelli Ward (R-Lake Havasu City), Judy Burges (R-Sun City West), Sonny Borrelli (R-Lake Havasu City) This bill would place a moratorium on the requirement to pass a standardized test to graduate High School for 3 years (during the 2014‑2015 school year, the 2015‑2016 school year or the 2016‑2017).

SB 1153: Primary sponsors: State Senators Ward and Burges.  This bill outlines the process for the State Board of Education’s implementation of Common Core:
1) Public hearings must be held in each congressional district;
2) A third party must be hired to conduct a fiscal analysis of implementation;
3) Directs the State to withdraw from PARCC (Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers);
4) The State Board of Education cannot “enter into or renew an agreement that cedes to an outside entity control over curricular standards or assessments in this state.”

SB 1095: Primary sponsors: State Senators Chester Crandell (R-Heber), Ward, Carl Seel (R-Phoenix), and Bob Thorpe (R-Flagstaff). This bill would force the withdrawal from PARCC, and prevent the state from entering into an agreement, without notification to the Legislature, with any outside entity developing multi-state or potentially multi-state assessments and tests.

HB 2316: Primary sponsors: State Representatives Justin Pierce (R-Mesa) and Thomas Forese (R-Gilbert).  This bill would prohibit the State Board of Education and the Superintendent of Public Instruction from adopting federally-mandated curricula or instructional approaches, prohibit federal funding, which requires the adoption of certain federal standards, and require any changes made to state standards to be conducted in public process.

SB 1310: Primary sponsor: State Senator Al Melvin (R-Tucson). This bill would prevent the implementation of the Common Core State Standards, prevents revisions to standards that would effectively implement Common Core State  Standards, withdraws Arizona from PARCC, and adopts a college entrance exam to be the statewide HS assessment.

Arkansas:

Karen Lamoreaux of Arkansas Against Common Core told me that the Arkansas Education Sovereignty Act will be filed this week in an attempt to defund the Common Core.  I will update when there is a bill number.

Colorado:

SB 14-136: This bill introduced by State Senator Vicki Marble (R-Ft. Collins) intends to push back the implementation of Common Core State Standards in Colorado schools to the 2015-16 school year in order to study its effects. Under the terms of the bill, schools would continue to use the Transitional Colorado Assessment Program (TCAP) for one more year instead of testing from the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC).

HB 14-1039: Introduced by State Representative Sue Schafer (D-Wheat Ridge) – This bill will link early childhood data with K-12 (horrible bill, it needs to be killed).

Connecticut:

SB 53: Introduced by State Senator Joe Markley (R-Southington)- This bill would cut funding to the advertising budget of the State Department of Education that was to be used for the promotion of the implementation of the Common Core State Standards.

Florida:

PCB KTS 14-01: This bill just removes references to the Common Core State Standards, it’s a garbage bill sponsored by the Florida House K-12 subcommittee.  See Karen Effrem’s analysis here.

HB 25: Introduced by State Representative Debbie Mayfield (R-Vero Beach) – Prohibits State Board of Education from continuing to implement common core standards until certain requirements are met; provides requirements for adoption or revision of curricular standards; requires state to withdraw from PARCC; prohibits state from implementing certain assessments & requires state to adopt & implement new assessments; prohibits state board from entering into certain agreements.

CS/HB 195: Introduced by State Representative Jake Raburn (R-Valrico) – Revises provisions relating to remedy in circuit court with respect to education records & reports of K-12 students & parents; provides for annual notice of student & parent rights; provides limitations on collection of information & disclosure of confidential & exempt student records; revises provisions relating to submission of student social security numbers & assignment of student identification numbers.

CS/SB 188: Introduced by State Senator Dorothy Hukill (R-Port Orange) – Providing for annual notice to K-12 students and parents of rights relating to education records; providing limitations on the collection of information and the disclosure of confidential and exempt student records; revising provisions relating to the submission of student social security numbers and the assignment of student identification numbers; requiring the Department of Education to establish a process for assigning student identification numbers, etc.

SB 232: Introduced by State Senator Hukill – Prohibiting a school district or school from collecting a student’s biometric information, etc. (There are some FERPA loopholes here).

SB 864:  Introduced by State Senator Alan Hays (R-Umatilla) – Providing that the district school board has the constitutional duty and responsibility to select and provide adequate instructional materials for all students; requiring a district school board or consortium of school districts to implement an instructional materials program; repealing provisions relating to bids, proposals, and advertisement regarding the adoption of instructional materials; requiring the district school board, rather than the commissioner, to conduct an independent investigation to determine the accuracy of district-adopted instructional materials, etc.  (This bill does require curriculum to be aligned with Florida standards so it’s not really effective).

Georgia:

SB 167: Introduced by State Senator William Ligon, Jr. (R-Brunswick) – A BILL to be entitled an Act to amend Part 2 of Article 6 of Chapter 2 of Title 20 of the O.C.G.A., relating to competencies and core curriculum, so as to declare certain actions void ab initio relating to adoption of certain curricula; to prohibit state education agencies from entering into any commitments relating to the federal Race to the Top program; to require hearings and public input prior to adoption of state-wide competencies and content standards; to limit the compilation and sharing of personal student and teacher data; to prohibit the expenditure of funds for a state-wide longitudinal data system except for administrative needs and federal grant compliance; to provide for related matters; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes.

SB 203: Introduced by State Senator Ligon – A BILL to be entitled an Act to amend Code Section 20-2-141 of the Official Code of Georgia Annotated, relating to the review of competencies and core curriculum, so as to provide for the establishment of a Curriculum Content Standards Advisory Council to review and revise competencies and content standards; to provide for subcommittees; to provide for public hearings; to provide for related matters; to repeal conflicting laws; and for other purposes. (Sets up the process to get out of the Common Core).

Illinois:

HR0543: Introduced by State Representative Dwight Kay (R-Glen Carbon) – Urges the State Board of Education to delay the implementation of the new Common Core Standards and requests that the State Board of Education and General Assembly work together to create a viable plan to provide funding to school districts that need improvements and modernizations to comply with the new Common Core Standards and the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Career’s.

SR0638: Introduced by State Senator Kyle McCarter (R-Vandalia) – Senate companion to HR0543.

Indiana:

SB 91: Introduced by State Senator Scott Schneider (R-Indianapolis) – Adds a definition of "college and career readiness". Provides that before July 1, 2014, the state board of education (state board) shall adopt Indiana college and career readiness educational standards. Provides that academic standards adopted prior to July 1, 2014, are void on the earlier of: July 1, 2014; or, the date academic standards are adopted. Provides that during the 2015-2016 school year, the state board shall authorize the department to administer either the ISTEP assessment or a comparable assessment program that is aligned with the educational standards. Provides that before the state board may authorize a new assessment program, the state board shall submit the proposed assessment program to the budget committee for review. Makes technical and conforming amendments.  (There is concern that the Indiana State Board of Education will just rebrand the Common Core instead of writing entirely new standards.  This bill has passed the Senate 36-12 and will be considered by the Indiana House.

Iowa:

HF 2140: Introduced by State Representative Tedd Gassman (R-Scarville) – It would make the Iowa Core (along with the Common Core) voluntary and strikes language in the Iowa Code giving the State Board of Education the authority to change the standards.

HF 2141: Introduced by State Representative Gassmann – This bill directs the Iowa Department of Education to pull out of the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium.

SF 2123: Introduced by State Senator Brad Zaun (R-Urbandale) – Rolls Iowa Standards back to existing standards set in 2006 (pre-Common Core, removes Iowa’s standards for social studies and 21st Century Skills).

Kansas:

I’ve been told there will be legislation filed that deals with the Common Core State Standards and possibly another attempt made this year to defund it.

Kentucky:

HB 5: Introduced by State Representative Denver Butler (D-Louisville) – This bill calls for tightened data security for all state agencies.

HF 215: Introduced by State Representative Thomas Kerr (R-Taylor Mill) – This bill calls for dropping the Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards, reasserts state sovereignty over education, and requires better data security for education records.

Louisiana:

I’ve been told that the Louisiana Legislature will have several bills, but none have been filed yet.  Here’s an article that discusses the work being done.

Maryland:

HB 76: Introduced by Delegate Michael Smigiel, Sr. (R-Elkton) – Prohibiting the State Board of Education and specified county boards of education from establishing specified educational policies, curriculum, and guidelines that include or are based on the Common Core State Standards; prohibiting the State Board from entering into any agreements or joining any organizations that give control over educational matters to any entity other than the State; requiring the State Board to take specified steps to rescind the State Board’s adoption of the Common Core State Standards; etc.

SB 0578: Introduced by State Senator Edward Reilly (R-Anne Arundel County) – Requiring each county board of education to determine the implementation timeline for the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC), no sooner than June 30, 2015.

SB 0579: Introduced by State Senator Reilly – It delays any evaluations of teachers and principals based on standardized testing until at least June 30, 2015.

SB 0408: Introduced by State Senator Reilly/Companion Bill – HB 0925: Introduced by Delegate Ron George (R-Anne Arundel County) – Would delay the Common Core State Standards.

Minnesota:

Minnesota bills do not have bill numbers yet, but there are three bills that have been picked up by State Representative Jim Abeler (R-Anoka): Data collection sharing only with parental permission; full repeal of the Common Core State Standards; and one other. There is a local control bill in the works as well as parental bill of rights.

Mississippi:

State Senator Angela Burks Hill (R-Picayune) filed SB 2736 would have prohibited the Mississippi State Board of Education from implementing the Common Core State Standards.  It also would have repealed the state’s SLDS system.  It unfortunately died in the Senate Education Committee on 2/4/14.  Not sure why, I don’t see any record of a vote.  No House bills were filed before the deadline.  Hearings have been requested in the House Education Committee but have been denied so far.

Missouri:

HB 1708: Introduced by State Representative Kurt Bahr (R-St. Charles) – Prohibits the State Board of Education, the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, and school districts from implementing the Common Core State Standards.

HJR 74: Introduced by State Representative Dean Dohrman (R-La Monte) – Proposes a constitutional amendment that would require members of the State Board of Education to be elected. Currently, members are appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate.

SB 514: Introduced by State Senator John Lamping (R-St. Louis) – Prohibits the State Board of Education, the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education, and school districts from implementing the Common Core State Standards.

SB 798: Introduced by State Senator Ed Emery (R-Lamar) – Modifies provisions relating to elementary and secondary education standards and assessments.  (Would pull Missouri out of Smarter Balanced and repeal the Common Core State Standards.)

SB 819: Introduced by State Senator Wayne Wallingford (R-Cape Girardeau) – This act enacts multiple provisions to protect personal privacy from government intrusion.

New Hampshire:

HB 1239: Introduced by State Representative Glenn Cordelli (R-Tuftonboro) – This bill requires the state board of education to report on the fiscal impact of implementing the college and career readiness standards, also known as the Common Core standards, and prohibits the board from implementing any new common core standards until the board performs a fiscal analysis and conducts a public hearing in each executive council district.

HB 1508: Introduced by State Representative Lenette Peterson (R-Merrimack) – This bill requires the state board of education to terminate all plans, programs, activities, and expenditures relative to the implementation of the common core state educational standards which have been adopted or may be adopted by the state board, including any assessments and instruction based upon such standards.

HB 1262: Introduced by State Representative J.R. Hoell (R-Dunbarton) – This bill restricts the collection, storage, and sharing of student assessment data by the United States Department of Education and the New Hampshire department of education.

HB 1586: Introduced by State Representative Cordelli – This bill establishes procedures for protecting the privacy of student and teacher personally-identifiable data. The bill also prohibits the use of video monitoring in a classroom for the purpose of teacher evaluations, affective computing methods, predictive modeling, radio frequency identification devices, and remote surveillance software on school laptops and tablets, without the written consent of a parent or legal guardian.

HB 1496: Introduced by State Representative Hoell – This bill provides that a school district shall not be required to administer any assessment which is not valid and appropriate, or which cannot be objectively scored.  This deals with the Smarter Balanced Assessment.

HB 1587: Introduced by State Representative Neal Kurk (R-Weare) – This bill regulates the collection and distribution of student data.

HB 1238: Introduced by State Representative Cordelli – This bill requires the department of education to make available assessment questions and response sheets on the department’s website as soon as possible after the assessment results are released.

New Jersey:

S. 2973: Introduced by State Senator Jeff Van Drew (D-Dennis Township) – Establishes Common Core State Standards Evaluation Task Force; delays use of assessments developed by Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers until task force submits final report.

A. 4403: Introduced by Assemblyman Bob Andrzejczak (D-Middle Township) – A companion bill to S. 2973.

New Mexico:

SB 296: This bill introduced by State Senator Linda Lopez (D-Albuquerque) would halt implementation of the Common Core and withdraw the state from the PARCC testing consortium. It would also require public hearings and a fiscal analysis of the new standards before they are brought into effect.

New York:

A07994: Introduced by Assemblyman Al Graf (R-Holbrook) – This bill will halt the implementation of the Common Core State Standards and Race to the Top in the State of New York if passed.  It was introduced last summer and it doesn’t look like any action has been taken in the New York Assembly Education Committee.  It has a companion bill in the New York Senate – S06267 introduced by State Senator Greg Ball (R-Carmel).  It was filed last month has been referred to the Senate Education Committee.

Ohio:

HB 237: Introduced by State Representative John Becker (R-Union Township) – A Common Core repeal bill.  It looks like it is held up in the House Education Committee.  It has had public hearings, but the committee chair actions have not been above board.

HB 181: Introduced by State Representative Andrew Brenner (R-Powell) – To amend sections 3314.03, 3319.321, 3326.11, and 3328.24 and to enact sections 3301.942, 3301.943, 3301.944, 3301.945, and 3301.946 of the Revised Code to prohibit submission of a student’s personal identifiable information to the federal government without direct authorization of the local school board, to modify the management and facilitation of the statewide education data repository, and to prohibit submission of student names and addresses to multi-state assessment consortia without written permission; to amend the version of section 3326.11 of the Revised Code that is scheduled to take effect July 1, 2014, to continue the provisions of this act on or after that effective date.  (This is a garbage bill that was passed by the Ohio House and is now being considered by the Ohio Senate.)

Oklahoma:

HB 2786: Authored by State Representative Jadine Nollan (R-Sand Springs) – A Common Core repeal bill.  An Act relating to schools; amending 70 O.S. 2011, Section 11-103.6a, which relates to adoption of curriculum standards; deleting requirement to adopt revisions to certain subject area curriculum standard to align with Common Core standards; providing an effective date; and declaring an emergency.

HB 2849: Authored by State Representative Dan Fisher (R-Yukon) – An Act relating to schools; amending 70 O.S. 2011,
Section 11-103.6a, which relates to adoption of curriculum standards; deleting requirement to adopt revisions to certain subject area curriculum standard to align with Common Core standards; providing an effective date; and declaring an emergency.

HB 3331: Authored by Speaker of the House T.W. Shannon (R-Lawton) – This prevents the Oklahoma Department of Education from entering into any agreements with the Federal government that would align Oklahoma standards to the Common Core – directs the Department to amend any agreements with the feds so that Oklahoma may be released from using the Common Core standards.

HB 3166: Authored by State Representative Gus Blackwell (R-Laverne) – This bill repeals the standards and then puts in place the "Local Curriculum Standards Pilot Program" in which ANY school district could adopt their own standards (even if they do not align with state standards) for five years.  After that time, there will be a comparison made among schools using the state standards and those using their own local standards using standardized, criterion-referenced tests.

HB 3399: Authored by State Representative Jason Nelson (R-Oklahoma City) – This prevents federal control over state standards.  It requires any agency using federal money or programming – including those collecting data on students – to amend existing agreements to extricate themselves from any agreements that would cede control over K-12 education from outside the state. This bill would not repeal the Common Core, but instead, puts the standards on ‘pause’ for a full year during which the state assessments will reflect PASS and not CC.  It directs the state board to examine the English/LA and math standards, and then compare them with PASS in 9 different areas.  A written review of the comparison must be submitted to the House, Senate and Governor for their own review.

SB 1146: Authored by State Senator Eddie Fields (R-Wynona) – This is a repeal bill that also includes direction to the State Board of Education to remove all alignment in the standards to the Common Core, stop Common Core assessments and require the state board to revise their agreement with the feds that will allow Oklahoma to get out from under the standards.

SB 1310: Authored by State Senator Fields – This bill would establish a task force the purpose of which would be to "review curricular standards approved by the State Board of Education and make recommendations to the Legislature regarding new curricular standards."

Rhode Island:

H 7095: Introduced by State Representatives Gregg Amore (D-East Providence) – If passed it would delay the implementation of standardized testing aligned with the Common Core State Standards until a commission, that would be created by the law, has had an opportunity to study and evaluate it.

South Carolina:

SB 300: Introduced by State Senator Larry Grooms (R-Charleston) – This bill would prevent the Common Core State Standard from being imposed on South Carolina.

H. 3943: Introduced by State Representative Samuel Rivers, Jr. (R-Goose Creek) – This bill would prevent the State Board of Education from adopting and the State Department of Education from implementing the Common Core State Standards and would make any actions taken to adopt or implement the standards void.

South Dakota:

HB 1237: Introduced by State Representative Jacqueline Sly (R-Rapid City) – This would create a council to do a comprehensive evaluation of the Common Core State Standards – a two year evaluation.  South Dakotans Against Common Core is against this bill.  You can read why here.

HB 1214: Introduced by State Representative Elizabeth May (R-Kyle) – This bill requires a study and analysis of the financial, fiscal, and economic impacts of implementation of the Common Core State Standards.

HB 1187: Introduced by State Representative Jim Bolin (R-Canton) – This allows parents to opt their students out of the Smarter Balanced Assessments.

HB 1243: Introduced by State Representative May – This bill would supplant the Common Core State Standards.

SB 63: Introduced by State Senator Ernie Otten (R-Tea) – This bill seeks to protect the privacy of the records of individual students.  This has been passed by the South Dakota Senate and is now under consideration in the South Dakota House.

Tennessee:

SB 2405: Introduced by State Senator Mae Beavers (R-Mt. Juliet) /HB 2332  introduced by State Representative Rick Womack (R-Rockvale) – As introduced, discontinues use of common core state standards. – Amends TCA Title 49, Chapter 1; Title 49, Chapter 10; Title 49, Chapter 2 and Title 49, Chapter 6.

HB 1549: Introduced by State Representative Bill Dunn (R-Knoxville)/SB 1835 Introduced by State Senator Dolores Gresham (R-Somerville) – As introduced, establishes requirements for the adoption of educational standards; prohibits use of student data for purposes other than tracking academic progress and educational needs of students. (Tennessee Against Common Core is not excited about this bill.)

HB 1826: introduced by State Representative Womack/SB 1986 introduced by Senator Stacey Campfield (R-Knoxville) – This bill requires the general assembly to approve, by the general appropriations act, all state funding for any future assessment tests used to measure the educational progress of students.

HB 1825: introduced by State Representative Womack/SB 1985 introduced by State Senator Campfield – As introduced, requires the state board of education and the department of education to postpone any further implementation of Common Core State Standards beyond those standards implemented as of June 30, 2013, until further implementation is approved by the general assembly.

HB 1828: introduced by State Representative Womack/SB 1984 introduced by State Senator Campfield – As introduced, prohibits adoption or use of PARCC assessments; requires the general assembly to make the decision as to adoption of assessments to replace TCAPs; requires the state to withdraw from PARCC; prohibits state membership in any group that relinquished control over assessments to an outside entity.

HB 2253: introduced State Representative Glen Casada (R-Franklin)/SB 1682 introduced by State Senator Gresham – As introduced, prohibits the state from joining consortia or initiatives that require the adoption of common standards in science and social studies; requires the state board of education to adopt standards in science and social studies that reflect the values of the state. – Amends TCA Title 49, Chapter 1; Title 49, Chapter 2 and Title 49, Chapter 6.

HB 1697: introduced by State Representative Sheila Butt (R-Columbia)/SB 1881: introduced by State Senator Frank Nicely (R-Strawberry Plains) – As introduced, requires cursive writing to be taught in the third grade.

HB 1696: Introduced by State Representative Butt/SB 1882: introduced by State Senator Nicely – As introduced, mandates that the state board of education and department of education shall immediately withdraw from the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and common core state standards. – Amends TCA Title 49, Chapter 1; Title 49, Chapter 10; Title 49, Chapter 2; Title 49, Chapter 3; Title 49, Chapter 5; Title 49, Chapter 6 and Title 49, Chapter 60.

HB 1841: introduced by State Representative Gloria Johnson (D-Knoxville)/SB 2221 introduced by State Senator Jim Kyle (D-Memphis) – As introduced, allows parents to opt their children out of high stakes testing. – Amends TCA Title 49.

HB 2453: introduced by State Representative Judd Matheny (R-Tullahoma)/SB 2559 introduced by State Senator Janice Bowling (R-Tullahoma) – As introduced, requires every LEA to allow parents to review all instructional materials used in the classroom of the parent’s child; mandates the LEA to allow parents access to review all surveys and evaluations administered to the parent’s child. – Amends TCA Title 49, Chapter 2 and Title 49, Chapter 6, Part 70.

HB 2290: introduced by State Representative Billy Spivey (R-Lewisburg)/SB 2057 introduced by State Senator Nicely – As introduced, requires the department of education to reimburse LEAs for the costs of implementing and the ongoing costs to use common core state standards and PARCC assessments. – Amends TCA Title 49.

HB 1882: Introduced by State Representative Vance Dennis (R-Savannah)/SB 1470: introduced by State Senator Gresham – As introduced, enacts the "Data Accessibility, Transparency and Accountability Act", which regulates the collection and release of data by the department and state board of education. – Amends TCA Title 10, Chapter 7, Part 5 and Title 49.

HB 1705: Introduced by State Representative Jeremy Faison (R-Cosby)/SB 1469: introduced by State Senator Gresham – As introduced, prohibits collection or reporting of certain student individual data without parental consent or consent of the student, if the student is 18 years of age or older. – Amends TCA Title 49.

HB 1703: Introduced by State Representative Ron Lollar (R-Bartlett)/SB 1961: introduced by State Senator Mike Bell (R-Riceville) – As introduced, prohibits transfer of student data when such action will transfer the data out of state, unless required by federal law. – Amends TCA Section 10-7-504 and Title 49. (TNACC states this bill upholds FERPA which basically undo the purpose of the bill so they do not support it as written)

HB 2237: Introduced by State Representative David Alexander (R-Winchester)/SB 2153: Introduced by State Senator Niceley – As introduced, requires members of the board to be elected by congressional district for four-year term as current terms expire and vacancies arise. – Amends TCA Title 49.

West Virginia:

SB 429: Introduced by State Senator Donna Boley (R-St. Marys) – This bill’s intent is to protect student data, require a complete cost analysis of the Common Core State Standards, and implement a two-year moratorium on assessments to allow for public hearings.

HB 4390: Introduced by State Delegate Jim Butler (R-Henderson) – This bill would end Common Core in West Virginia and eliminate the state’s Statewide Longitudinal Database System.

Wisconsin:

There currently isn’t any bill filed (that I could find).  Loren Heal of School Reform News reported that “State Sen. Leah Vukmir  (R-Wauwatosa) and other legislators are working to replace Common Core and its national tests. The bill she supports would ‘firmly repeal Common Core in the state, and would get rid of the Smarter Balanced tests,’ said Jason Rostan, Vukmir’s spokesman. ‘And it would create a new State Standards Education Board.’” I’ve yet to see that bill.

Wyoming:

I’ve been told that a bill will be filed tomorrow by State Representative Tom Reeder (R-Casper) and it will deal with Wyoming’s involved with the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium and student data privacy.

The post 2014 Common Core Legislation Round-Up appeared first on Truth in American Education.

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