September 1 In History
September is an auspicious month in terms of Jewish History. Like most things in the world of Jews, it is a mixed bag-- a combination of the bitter and the sweet.
Today we mark the anniversary of the start of World War II. By the end of the war, the world of European Jewry would lie in ruins. After two thousand years of growth and contribution, that civilization would cease to exist as we had known it.
September also marks the anniversary of the beginning of the Jewish community in the United States. From twenty-three stormed tossed refugees has come one of the most dynamic civilizations in Jewish history.
1312 BCE(10th of Tishrei): According to the Bible, the day on which Moses came down from Mt. Sinai with the second set of Tablets on which the ten commandments were inscribed.
1199(8th of Tishri): Maimonides wrote to Samuel Ibn-Tibbon, who as translating the "Guide to the Perplexed from Arabic into Hebrew. The letter included advice on how to do this as well as plea that Ibn-Tibbon not undertake his planned trip from France to Egypt to visit him. The distance was too great and he would be too busy since to see him for more than an hour since each day except Shabbat he must travel from Fostat to Cairo where he spends half a day ministering to the Sultan and his court. Then he travels back to Fostat where he is besiged by Jews, Moslems, et al all seeking his medical skill and advice.
1267: Ramban (Moses Nachmanides or Moses ben Nachman) arrived in Jerusalem. Born in 1194, Nachmanides was a famed commentator on the Torah and Talmud and a major communal leader in
Spain
. He also was the court physician to King James of
Aragon
(a part of
Spain
). King James forced him to defend Judaism in a public debate with Pablo Christiani, a Jew who had converted to Catholicism. To make a long story short, Nachmanides vigorous defense angered the Dominican friars and Nahcmanides was forced to flee. He gave life to a Jewish community in
Jerusalem
that had fallen on such hard times that it had trouble gathering a minyan. Among other things he built a synagogue in
Jerusalem
that was the sole such building for several centuries to come. Nachmanides moved to
Acre
in 1268 where he led that community until 1270.
1577: Pope Gregory XIII, reconfirming the Bull off Pope Nicholas
III
, decreed that one hundred and fifty Jews must hear conversion sermons in Rome every week. He reissued a similar Bull a few years later in 1584.
1584: Gregory XIII issued Sancta Mater Ecclesia, a Papal Bull concerning the obligatory preaching of Christian sermons to Jews. The Bull required that 100 men and 50 women be sent every Saturday to listen to conversion sermons delivered in a church near the ghetto.
1592: Archbishop Salikowski ordered the Jews to build a church in Lvov Poland marking a period of increasing persecution.
1614: Vincent Fettmich expelled the Jews from
Frankfurt-on-Main
,
Germany
.
1749: The delegates of the Hungarian Jews, except those from
Szatmar
County
, assembled at Pressburg and met a royal commission, which informed them that they would be expelled from the country if they did not pay this tax. The frightened Jews at once agreed to do so; and the commission then demanded a yearly tax of 50,000 gulden. This sum being excessive, the delegates protested; and although the queen had fixed 30,000 gulden as the minimum tax, they were finally able to compromise on the payment of 20,000 gulden a year for a period of eight years. The delegates were to apportion this amount among the districts; the districts, their respective sums among the communities; and the communities, theirs among the individual members. The queen confirmed this agreement of the commission, except the eight-year clause, changing the period to three years, which she subsequently made five.
1715: King Louis XIV of France dies after a reign of 72 years. The Sun King’s record in dealing with the Jewish people was never good, but it got really awful just before his death. Seized with the deathbed religious fervor the debauched, he came fully to accept the position of the Church and the Jesuits when he banned all Jews from Marseilles Toulon and the rest of Provence in 1710. “The Jews were ordered, in his words, ‘to leave the kingdom without any belongs’ and local officials were told to take any and all means to expel the Jews ‘because that is our wish.’”
1752: The Liberty Bell arrived in Philadelphia. The Bell is inscribed with words from the 25th chapter of Leviticus, "Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof. It is but one of many examples of how Jewish culture and values had an impact on Western civilization in general and, in this case, early American culture specifically.
1763: Catherine II of
Russia
endorses Ivan Betskoy’s plans for a Foundling Home in
Moscow
. Betskoy was an educational reformer and accepting his plan was in keeping with Catherine’s self-image of being “a child of the Enlightenment.” This happened a year after Catherine came to the throne in a period when her hold on the office was still shaky due to the way she had gained her crown. At this time, Catherine was also gingerly working her way around the anti-Jewish laws of her late mother-in-law “quietly” allowing “useful” Jews such as doctors, contractors and businessman to work in
St. Petersburg
. Catherine’s accepting view of her Jewish subjects would change during the last years of her reign, when the limitations she place on them began the creation of what would become the Pale of Settlement.
1795: Birthdate of James Gordon Bennett, Sr., the found of the New York Herald. When he died in 1872, he would be memorialized as “an honest supporter and true friend” of the Jewish people whose newspaper “always gave firm and true support to” the Jewish people.
1805: During the dispute sparked by the publication of ‘Emeḳ ha-Shaweh (Vale of the Plain), Rabbi Moses Münz summoned two rabbis to come to Óbuda to form with him a tribunal before which would hear the case against the author, Rabbi Aron Chorin.
1820: Former President Thomas Jefferson wrote to Dr. Jacob De La Motta of Savannah, GA. Jefferson repeated his belief in religious freedom and his happiness at “restoration of the Jews” especially as regards “their social rights.” He looks forward to the day when they will take “their seats on the benches of science” as preparation to “their doing the same at the board of government.” (As reported by the Jewish Virtual Library)
1822: Brazil declared its independence from Portugal. Soon after this declaration of independence many Spanish Jews from
Morocco
migrated to the area. By 1879 Sephardim had settled all the way down to the Amazon rain forest area.
1832: Birthdate of Yosef Chaim, the Baghdad native who is also known as Ben Ish Chai which is the name of his seminal work on halachah. Ben Ish Chai is Hebrew for “son of man who lives,” a term that harkens back to Ezekiel and the Valley of the Dry Bones (Son of Man, can these bones live?).
1836 Reconstruction begins on the “Synagogue of Rabbi Judah Hasid” in Jerusalem.
1853: The New York Times reported that civil unrest continues to rock Venezuela. “At Barcelona, the government of General Monagas has published a ‘warning”” aimed at foreigners in general and Jews in particular accusing them of being the instigators of the unrest. After a delegation of Jews and other foreigners sought help from the Dutch Consul at Caracas, a Dutch man-of-war sailed to Barcelona where it could offer protection to those who have been threatened.
1855: Mademoiselle Rachel, the great French Tragedienne, is scheduled to make her New York debut today. Mademoiselle Rachel is Elizabeth Rachel Felix, the daughter of a German-Swiss Jew named Felix and his wife Esther Haya.
1857: The New York Times reported that a decision has been made to carry the question of admitting Jews to Parliament has been carried over to the next session much to the relief of Lord Russell.
1858: The New York Timespublished a report today that Pierre Soule has arrived in Washington. Mr. Soule was described as “a man of power” who “possesses undoubted influence over public affairs.” The article also reported that if Soule decided to run for the Senate he could defeat John Slidell. Furthermore, the article reported that like Judah P. Benjamin, the Senator from Louisiana, “Mr. Soule is a Jew, and the Hebrew element is a rising one in the aggregate intellect of the country.” [Editor’s note – If Soule were in fact Jewish, the author is saying that Louisiana would be the first state in the Union to be represented in the U.S. by two Jews.]
1861: Thomas Jordan General Beauregard’s Assistant Adjutant-General sent a letter on behalf of the Confederate Commander to Rabbi M.I. Mechelbacker of Richmond denying his request to grant furloughs to Jewish Soldiers starting on September 2nd and lasting through September 15th so that might attend services for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. The Confederate generals are sure that Jews in and out of the army will understand given the military situation which finds Southern forces “bivouacked in full view of the capitol of the late United States.” Jordan assured the Rabbi that the God who “released your people from Egypt bondage” will understand. (Like many Southerners, Jordan did not see the irony of the side that was fighting to preserve slavery invoking the liberation from Egyptian bondage.)
1867(1st of Elul, 5627): Rosh Chodesh Elul
1873: A Jewish peddler named Samuel Bendtersar was arrested this morning in Flushing on charges of having assaulted Johanna Fatsner.
1876: Sir Julius Vogel completed his services as Prime Minister of New Zealand. Vogel was the first Jew to hold this position.
1877: “Notes from the Capital” published today described the recent dedication of Washington Hebrew Congregation during which Rabbi Szold of Baltimore delivered the sermon. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who had promised to attend, “sent a message expressing his regret at being unable to fulfill his promise.”
1878: It was reported today that 200 delegates attended the opening session of the Pan-Jewish Conference in Paris. Adolph Cremieux presided over the meeting at which it was reported that the organization had 24,000 members and had collected 111,000 francs in the past year. The delegates sought ways to improve the moral, intellectual and political conditions of the Jews living in various parts of the world.
1878: It was reported today that there were those in England who claimed Disraeli would play the ultimate joke when he died by renouncing his youthful conversion to Christianity and being buried next to his Jewish father. Others claimed that Disraeli would do no such thing, choosing to be buried next to his wife.
1878: It was reported today that among the donations made to help those suffering from the Yellow Fever Epidemic in the Deep South was $100 from the Hebrews of the St. Joseph Mission earmarked for the Howard Association in Memphis, Tenn.
1879: “Henry O’Brien’s Experiment” published today described the 12 year old Irish boy’s attempt to find out how a Jew, in this case Harris Goldstein, would react when tricked into eating pork. (It must have been a slow news day in New York)
1882: In Fifth District Civil Court in New York City, Civil Justice Alfred Steckler heard Freund versus Selig in which the plaintiff sought to force the defendant Louis Selig to repay what he claimed was a ten dollar loan. Selig, a well-known Jewish police officer claimed that the ten dollars in questions was not a loan but a gift made on his behalf as a political contribution.
1882: It was reported today that large numbers of unemployed Jewish refugees “continue to besiege” the Hebrew Aid Society on State Street in search of financial assistance.
1882: Theobold Michael, President of the Synagogue and Talmud Torah at 622 Fifth Street, appeared at the Essex Market Police Court where he filed a complaint against Charles A. Leopold claiming that the defendant “annoyed the congregation” during services “by swearing at them, using insulting language” and throwing mud into the synagogue. Leopold denied the allegations and claimed that the Jewish prayers disturbed his invalid wife. The Judge let Leopold go after telling him that he not “disturb the congregation.”
1883: It was reported today that Herr von Tisza, the President of the Hungarian Council has instituted news measures to protect Jews from any more attacks. From now on, any rioter who attacks a Jew and is condemned to death under a decree of martial law will be put to death within three hours after being sentencing.
1884: It was reported today that fifty-five year old Daniel Weinberger whose body was discovered yesterday in his room on South Halstead Street left a note for his landlord Winter Meyer asking that his remains “be taken in a Jewish hearse to a Jewish burying ground” where he would be buried by a Jewish burial society.
1885: “A Fight In A Synagogue” published today described a dispute between Sol Goldstone and Abraham Jacobs that turned violent during the annual meeting of a Jewish congregation in Montreal, Canada.
1886: Coroner Levy, the President of the Jewish Immigrants’ Protective Association sought an interview with Immigration Superintendent Jackson to protest the treatment of Mr. and Mrs. Manheim and their 5 year old child who were being denied entrance to the United States.
1887: The San Diego Union noted that congregants at Beth Israel were talking of building a synagogue estimated to cost $20,000.
1888: Sixty immigrants, most of whom were Russian Jews, were detained at Castle Garden before being sent to Blackwell’s Island. They were treated in this manner because they had been identified as “paupers.”
1889: The formal dedication of the new Sephardic synagogue to be used by the Moses Montefiore Congregation was scheduled to take place today.
1889: It was reported today that the only hotel in Tétouan, Morocco is “kept by a native Jew” which is unusual in area dominated by Berbers and Arabs.
1891: Birthdate of Joseph Zaritsky, Ukrainian born Israeli painter.
1889: “The History of the Jews” published today provided a review of History of the People of Israel from the Reign of David up to the Capture of Samaria by Ernest Renan.
1892: Leo M. Franklin began serving as the Rabbi for Temple Israel in Omaha, Nebraska.
1894(30th of Av, 5654): Rosh Chodesh Elul
1900: Mose Levi the Hahambashi of Turkey presented an address to Sultan Abdul Hamid on the occasion of his 25th anniversary of his accession to the throne. The term Hahambashi means Head of Rabbis and is the appellation for the Grand Rabbi of
Turkey
. The Hebrew term for "wise man" Chachamhas been adopted in Turkish to mean "Rabbi." This is to avoid the use of the word "Rabbi" since in Arabic the word "Rab" is one of the names of God and may not be applied to a human.
1905:
Alberta
became the eighth
province
of
Canada
. Two brothers, Jacob and William Diamond were among the first Jewish people to settle in
Alberta
, in 1888 and 1892, respectively. They made the long journey from their home in
Lithuania
. The Diamond brothers went on to be successful merchants in
Alberta
, and, perhaps, more notable, they organized for a High Holy Day service attended by other Jewish Albertans who had arrived. Unlike the Diamond brothers, early Jewish immigrants came to
Alberta
to establish farm colonies, settling in central and southern
Alberta
, near places such as
Pine
Lake
, Trochu,
Medicine Hat
and
Lethbridge
. This first attempt at farming was not overly successful. Many of those who came were city-dwellers who had grown up in the cities of
Europe
. A Jewish relief agency in
London
England
raised $400 to distribute the destitute Jewish pioneers. Because of the difficult conditions in
Alberta
and the Jewish people’s inexperience in farming, many of the immigrants left
Alberta
soon after, some going to the
United States
. By 1906, the community had largely reestablished itself in
Calgary
.
1905:
Saskatchewan
became the ninth
province
of
Canada
. Six Jewish farming communities were formed in
Saskatchewan
between 1886 and 1906. The first of these colonies was a novelty and evoked considerable curiosity in the district. Locals dubbed the colony "The New Jerusalem." Due to inadequate winter shelter against sub-zero temperatures, wind, driving snow, drought, etc., this settlement lasted only six years. Another colony,
Hirsch
,
Saskatchewan
was founded in 1892. Landau enlisted the assistance of the French financier-philanthropist Baron Maurice de Hirsch. Hirsch regarded the creation of a Jewish state as a fantasy; however, he took a great interest in Jewish agricultural colonization. Baron de Hirsch established the Jewish Colonization Association to facilitate mass emigration of Jews from
Russia
and the establishment of agricultural colonies in North and
South America
. Hirsch was the only Jewish farm colony in
Canada
that was directly organized and funded by the Jewish Colonization Association. Hirsch favored colonization of
Argentina
rather than
Canada
. Edenbridge was founded in 1906. It no longer exists, but some of the members of the founding families live in the area. The Beth Israel Synagogue, built by the settlers in 1908, still stands today. It is a wooden structure similar to many Russian churches of that period. The synagogue served as a place of worship until 1964. Today it is a
Saskatchewan
historic site. The Saskatchewan Wildlife Association maintains the synagogue building, the adjacent cemetery, and the 40 - 100 acres of wooded lands. The settlers of Edenbridge were Lithuanian Jewish refugees who had temporarily settled in
South Africa
. They were lured to
Canada
by a federal government promise of 160 acres of farmland for only $10. Charles Vickar, whose father settled Edenbridge in 1906, stated that owning land was everything to the Lithuanian Jews. When the refugees were assured that they could freely practice their religion they jumped at the opportunity. They had no knowledge of farming. They did not know how to use a plough or an axe. They were Talmudic students and petty tradesman. These Lithuanian Jews took the Canadian Railroad as far west as it went at the time. When they arrived at the end of the line, the Jewish pioneers opted to go north where they heard there was more wood and water. The farther north you go in
Saskatchewan
the more woods there are. Instead of joining some of the established farming communities in the level open country, they picked a spot by the
Carrot
River
. The name, Edenbridge, means Jew's bridge. The settlers devised the town name in 1907, when a bridge was constructed over the
Carrot
River.
The Jewish farm population in
Canada
reached a peak of 2,568 by 1921. Sixty-nine percent of Jewish farmers lived in
Western Canada
with the majority residing in
Saskatchewan
. By 1939, it was estimated that one out of every 16 Jews who were working on the Canadian prairies made his livelihood on the farm. Most of the Jewish farming colonies lasted to the mid-point of this century. Jewish farm colonies disappeared as a result of the great drought and depression.
1911: The headquarters of the Zionist Movement was transferred from Cologne to Berlin
1911: Herr Wolfsthal was appointed Attorney-General at Frankenthal, making him the first Jew to hold such a position in Bavaria.
1911: As part of the celebration of its 500thAnniversary, the
University
of St. Andres conferred an honorary degree on Dr. Georg Brandes, the Danish born Jew who served as Professor of Literature at the University of Copenhagen and Professor Raphael Meldola, the British chemist and entomologist.
1915: In New York, a new law went into effect requiring that meat sold as kosher must “bear the imprint of the supervising rabbi at the slaughter house.”
1919: Rabbi Abraham I. Kook arrived in Palestine today to assume his role as Chief Rabbi.
1921: With delegates and visitors from every part of the world in attendance, the International Zionist Congress opened its sessions in the ancient drill hall at
Carlsbad
,
Czechoslovakia
.
1923: The Great Earthquake struck Honshu the main island of Japan. Forty Jewish families living at Yokohama cabled the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society pleading for aid. “Help us or we perish.” Two thousand dollars was sent by the Joint Distribution Committee. (As reported by JTA)
1926: Birthdate of Eugene Jules Colan “a towering figure among comic-book artists, whose depictions of some of the best-known characters in the genre were lauded for their realism, expressiveness and painterly qualities.” According to Margalit Fox, the family’s name had been Cohen before changing it to Colan.
1927: The Weizmann Administration, the Palestine Government and the British Government as the mandatory power were severely criticized on the second day of the Fifteenth Zionist Congress which is in session here. Criticism came from several sources including Isaac Greenbaum, a member of the Polish Parliament and Dr. Stephen S. Wise, leader of the American Zionists.
1929: Amir el-Hussein, Grand Mufti and President of the Supreme Moslem Council warned of “a grave national revolt” by 60 million Muslims if Great Britain persists in enforcing the Balfour Declaration.
1929: A crowd numbering more than 15,000 attending a meeting at London’s Albert Hall protested against Arab violence and urged the British government to restore order, punish the guilty while making reparations for the loss of Jewish life and property.
1929: The British High Commissioner said that he would enforce the Jewish right of access to the Western Wall despite violent Arab opposition.
1931: Birthdate of Frank Magid. Frank Newton Magid was born in Chicago and served in the Army during the Korean War. He graduated from the University of Iowa and received a master's degree there in 1956 in the fields of social psychology and statistics. After teaching at Iowa's Coe College and the University of Iowa, Mr. Magid launched his company in 1956. His first client was a bank; his fourth was WMT-TV, now KGAN-TV, in Cedar Rapids. By creating careful surveys and polling random samples of a population, Mr. Magid and his employees were able to provide highly accurate data that gave television its first serious consumer research. The work paid off for the Iowa station, and the station's manager recommended Mr. Magid for a job at Time-Life's newly acquired KOGO-TV in San Diego. That, too, was successful, and it led to a contract for all the Time-Life stations. "And that really was our launching pad because they were very kind to us and began to do some considerable amount of advertising to the trades, talking about how they were listening to the public through this rather new, and at that time quite unique, kind of research,'' Mr. Magid told Electronic Media. His firm, from which he retired in 2002, also advised AM radio stations to get into the FM field, and urged broadcasters to invested in cable TV. He helped identify viability of direct broadcast satellite television and did the first research that determined the viability of digital video recorders. Now based in Minneapolis, the privately-held company has about 200 employees and advises all kinds of media, including The Washington Post, through its MORI Research division.
1933: The Reichsvertretung der deutschen Juden, the central representative body of German Jews emphasizing education, is established; it is led by Otto Hirsch and Rabbi Leo Baeck. It is the only organization officially allowed to represent German Jews.
1934: In Denmark, a collaborationist SS organization, National Socialistike Ungdom (National Socialist Youth), is established.
1935(3rd of Elul, 5695): Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak HaCohen Kook passed away today at the age of 69. His distinguished career was capped off by his appointment as Chief Rabbi of Palestine in 1919.
1935: The problem of who is to be president of the World Zionist Organization was dramatically settled in Lucerne, Switzerland, early today when Dr. Chaim Weizmann, noted scientist and internationally famous Zionist leader, announced his readiness to assume the full leadership of the Zionist movement.
1935: “A world conference of Jewish doctors opened in Lucerne tonight to discuss Jewish health problems and to consider the advisability of convoking a world Jewish medical conference in Tel Aviv.”
1935: Currently Jerusalem, Jaffa and Tel Aviv have ordinances in effect similar to those in several European cities that limit and/or ban the honking of horns in the late night hours. Police in Palestine have adopted the slogan of “Don’t use your horn. Use your brains.”
1936(14th of Elul, 5696): Dr. Isaac Max Rubinow passed away. Rubinow really had two careers. He was a medical doctor, who among other things played a key role in developing health services in Palestine immediately after World War I. He went back to school and earned a Ph.D. in Economics which provided him with a platform to deal with the issues of health care and its finances. He was a co-founder and the first president of the organization now known as Casualty Actuarial Society. In 1934, he published the Quest for Security which pre-dated and greatly influence the creation of the New Deal social net including Social Security.
1937: Four Arab villagers were shot and killed by unknown persons, apparently Jews, near Hadera. The authorities suspected that Jewish extremists were involved and carried out many arrests. The National Committee for Palestine Jewry (Val'ad Leumi) issued an appeal for national discipline.
1938: On the Island of Rhodes, newspapers carried the announcement of anti-Jewish laws. Ritual slaughter was banned and all Jews who had come to Rhodes after 1919 were told they had to leave.
1938: A concentration camp is established at
Neuengamme
,
Germany
.
1938: Mussolini canceled civil rights of Italian Jews and expelled all foreign-born Jews.
1939: Leading Jewish-German jurist Gerhard Leibholz, stripped of his position at the
University
of
Göttingen
in 1936, escapes to
Switzerland
with his wife and two daughters
1939: This date marked the beginning of World War II with the German attack on
Poland
. German forces overrun western
Poland
, instigating World War II. Three thousand Jewish civilians die in the bombing of
Warsaw
. German troops enter
Danzig
, trapping more than 5000 Jews. Throughout
Germany
and
Austria
, Jews may not be outside after
8:00 p.m.
in the winter and
9:00 p.m.
in the summer Out of the 3,351,000 Jews in
Poland
, 2,042,000 came under Nazi rule while 1,309,000 came under Soviet rule. Remember, the Soviets invaded
Poland
from the west after the Nazis had begun their blitz from the West. Within two days the British and French declared war on
Germany
. During the war a million and a half Jews fought on the side of allied forces: 555,000 for the
USA
; 500,000 for the
Soviet Union
; 116,000 for
Great Britain
(26,000 from
Palestine
and 90,000 from the
British Commonwealth
); and another 243,000 for other European nations.
1939: As of this date, there were “185,000 Jews in ‘integral’ German, together with 70,000 in
Austria
and 190,000 in
Czechoslovakia
.”
1939: From September 1 to
October 25, 19
39
Operation Tannenberg, carried out by SS Einsatzgruppen (mobile kill squads), leads to the murders of Polish Jews and Catholic intellectuals and to the burnings of synagogues in
Poland
.
1939: General George C. Marshall is named Chief of Staff of the United States Army.
Marshall
is the unsung hero of World War II. He was a critical force in convincing a reluctant Congress to accept peace time conscription in 1940 so that
America
was not completely unprepared for war when it came to
America
at
Pearl Harbor
. He was the architect who managed a war that raged across the entire globe in day before the e-mail, the internet and computers. He won the Nobel Prize for Peace for the Marshall Plan. It is most unusual for a top military leader to have this award. The only chink in
Marshall
’s armor was his opposition to the creation of the state of
Israel
. He feared that American support of the Jewish state would destroy American stature among the Arabs and open the way to Soviet domination of the
Middle East
. He also did not believe that the Israelis could defeat the Arabs and feared the slaughter that would follow. There is no record of how his views may have changed once the Israelis proved they could survive without the need of American military support.
1940: Polish underground officer Witold Pilecki penetrates the main camp at
Auschwitz
with the intention of organizing secret resistance groups inside the camp.
1940: Soviet authorities order Japanese Consul Sempo Sugihara to leave
Kovno
,
Lithuania
, where he has issued 3500 exit visas to Jews
1941: Birthdate of Tzvi Gal-Chen a sabra who would gain fame for his work in retrieval of wind and thermodynamic variables from a single Doppler radar.
1941: In
Hungary
, Einsatzkommandos, with the help of some Hungarian militia, murdered 11,000 Jews. In August,
Hungary
had pushed 17,000 stateless Jews across the border to Kamenets-Podolski in the
Ukraine
. The German army protested that the large number of refugees interfered with the war effort and
Hungary
took a few thousand back as slave laborers, leaving the rest in the hands of the Germans. There were no survivors.
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