Genetically engineered trees, Tasmania's connection: minor
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''E. nitens'' are difficult to clonally propagate from self-rooting cuttings and coppicing techniques so clonal selections are commenced by grafting selected ''E. nitens'' onto seedling trees in the same way as horticultural crops such as apple trees.<ref name ="GPL newsletter"/> The species can be readily grafted and open-pollination seed orchards of ''E. nitens'' have been established for this purpose.<ref name="Hamilton1"/> Improved ''E. nitens'' trees are now grown as commercial pulp trees world-wide. According to Kelsey Joyce, Manager of tree breeding for GPL ‘Tree breeding is a long term commitment involving extensive research as it takes many years to grow trials for analysis and selection. The findings from this research are highly beneficial in continually improving our product and allowing us to remain competitive in a global industry’.
''E. nitens'' are difficult to clonally propagate from self-rooting cuttings and coppicing techniques so clonal selections are commenced by grafting selected ''E. nitens'' onto seedling trees in the same way as horticultural crops such as apple trees.<ref name ="GPL newsletter"/> The species can be readily grafted and open-pollination seed orchards of ''E. nitens'' have been established for this purpose.<ref name="Hamilton1"/> Improved ''E. nitens'' trees are now grown as commercial pulp trees world-wide. According to Kelsey Joyce, Manager of tree breeding for GPL ‘Tree breeding is a long term commitment involving extensive research as it takes many years to grow trials for analysis and selection. The findings from this research are highly beneficial in continually improving our product and allowing us to remain competitive in a global industry’.
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Several seed orchards containing selected ''E. nitens'' trees are allowed to mature to produce its valuable seed. All the seed used for Gunns’ plantation establishment now comes from these intensively managed, grafted seed orchards.<ref name ="GPL newsletter"/> According to GPL these genetically improved tree breeding stock are essential for the profitability of their MIS woodlot plantations.
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Several seed orchards containing selected ''E. nitens'' trees are allowed to mature to produce its valuable seed. All the seed used for Gunns’ plantation establishment now comes from these intensively managed, grafted seed orchards.<ref name ="GPL newsletter"/> According to GPL these genetically improved tree breeding stock are essential for the profitability of their MIS woodlot plantations.
[Note: all the post-1990s MIS tree plantations companies were liquidated and ceased operating by 2012.<ref>ABC1-7.30 Report ''Taxpayer funded forests become a burning wreck'' Greg Hoy 15 July 2013 [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2013/s3803638.htm]</ref>
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In 1999 the commercial seed producer '''Derford Nitens''' commenced field trials with '''Forestry Tasmania''' and '''Forests Enterprises Australia''' to ‘verify the genetic gains and to enable intense back selection of seed orchard parents to maximize the gains in pulpwood and solid-wood traits’. In 2000 a clonal seed orchard was established with Derford Nitens contributring genetic material for both breeding and commercial deployments through organizations such as Forestry
Industry
.<ref name="Hamilton1"/> The seeds are collected in the seed orchard Derford Nitens at Bream Creek located in southeast Tasmania are now being commercially traded internationally.<ref>''Bioseed Chile - Species: Eucalyptus nitens (Shining gum)''- accessed 18 May 2010 - [http://translate.google.com.au/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=http://www.bioseed.cl/index.php%3Faction%3Dnitens&ei=CtjxS6TlEI7g7APoobSWDA&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCYQ7gEwAw&prev=/search%3Fq%3DDerford%2BNitens%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG]</ref>
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In 1999 the commercial seed producer '''Derford Nitens''' commenced field trials with '''Forestry Tasmania''' and '''Forests Enterprises Australia''' to ‘verify the genetic gains and to enable intense back selection of seed orchard parents to maximize the gains in pulpwood and solid-wood traits’. In 2000 a clonal seed orchard was established with Derford Nitens contributring genetic material for both breeding and commercial deployments through organizations such as Forestry
Tasmania
.<ref name="Hamilton1"/> The seeds are collected in the seed orchard Derford Nitens at Bream Creek located in southeast Tasmania are now being commercially traded internationally.<ref>''Bioseed Chile - Species: Eucalyptus nitens (Shining gum)''- accessed 18 May 2010 - [http://translate.google.com.au/translate?hl=en&sl=es&u=http://www.bioseed.cl/index.php%3Faction%3Dnitens&ei=CtjxS6TlEI7g7APoobSWDA&sa=X&oi=translate&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCYQ7gEwAw&prev=/search%3Fq%3DDerford%2BNitens%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG]</ref>
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Ongoing genetic improvement of ''E. nitens'' has been occurring throughout the first decade of the 21st century.<ref name="Hamilton1"/>
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Ongoing genetic improvement of ''E. nitens'' has been occurring throughout the first decade of the 21st century.<ref name="Hamilton1"/>
[See section 3.2 Gentically engineered trees: Tasmania's connection.]
In March 2010 Bleaney and Scammell released the research findings of their research on the identification of a previously unknown group of toxins in freshwater in the George River catchment.<ref name="GRWI-Exec Summ">George River Water Investigation - Executive Summary [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/a/a4/George_River_Water_Investigations_Summary.pdf]</ref><ref name="GRWI-Part 1">George River Investigation – Part 1 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=File:George_River_Investigation_Part_1_-_Final.pdf]</ref><ref name="GRWI-Part 2">George River Investigation – Part 2 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/3/37/George_River_Investigation_Part_2_-_Final.pdf]</ref><ref name="GRWI-Part 3">George River Investigation – Part 3 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=File:George_River_Investigation_Part_3_-_Final.pdf]</ref> The presence of a range of pesticides registered for use in commercial agriculture and forestry were intermittently detected, the commonest being '''alpha-cypermethrin, atrazine, simazine, glyphosate''', the phenoxy herbicides - '''2,4-D, MCPA''' and '''metsulfuron-methyl'''. From water testing came the discovery of several unknown chemicals in the water samples. The presence of these chemicals in water samples made it hazardous to marine and freshwater organisms and to human cell lines. The structure and pharmaco-toxicity of these chemicals is still the subject of research.
In March 2010 Bleaney and Scammell released the research findings of their research on the identification of a previously unknown group of toxins in freshwater in the George River catchment.<ref name="GRWI-Exec Summ">George River Water Investigation - Executive Summary [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/a/a4/George_River_Water_Investigations_Summary.pdf]</ref><ref name="GRWI-Part 1">George River Investigation – Part 1 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=File:George_River_Investigation_Part_1_-_Final.pdf]</ref><ref name="GRWI-Part 2">George River Investigation – Part 2 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/3/37/George_River_Investigation_Part_2_-_Final.pdf]</ref><ref name="GRWI-Part 3">George River Investigation – Part 3 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=File:George_River_Investigation_Part_3_-_Final.pdf]</ref> The presence of a range of pesticides registered for use in commercial agriculture and forestry were intermittently detected, the commonest being '''alpha-cypermethrin, atrazine, simazine, glyphosate''', the phenoxy herbicides - '''2,4-D, MCPA''' and '''metsulfuron-methyl'''. From water testing came the discovery of several unknown chemicals in the water samples. The presence of these chemicals in water samples made it hazardous to marine and freshwater organisms and to human cell lines. The structure and pharmaco-toxicity of these chemicals is still the subject of research.
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''Eucalyptus'' spp. trees naturally produce volatile oils such as '''cineole''' and '''pineole''' - constituents of eucalyptus oil. Positive correlations exists between the concentrations of cineole and concentrations of '''
formylated
phloroglucinol compounds''' (FPCs) in several Eucalypts,<ref>Foley, W. and E. Lassak ‘The potential of bioactive constituents of Eucalyptus foliage as non-wood products from plantations’: A report for the RIRDC/Land & Water Australia/FWPRDC/MDBC, Joint Venture Agroforestry Program, Publication No 04/154, RIRDC Project No ANU-56A, 2004</ref> suggesting that selective breeding trees for increased cineole quantities will also result in the selection for increased FPCs. Research into selective breeding of Eucalyptus with higher concentrations of these toxic compounds to deter browsing herbivores such as wallabies (''Marcopus rugogriseus'' and ''Thylogale billardierii'' and possums (''Trichosurus vulpecula''), and developmental stages of leaf beetles and gum moths has been carried out.<ref name="Harcourt">Harcourt, R., X. Zhu, D. Llewellyn, E. Dennis and Peacock, J. ‘Genetic Engineering for Insect Resistance in Temporary Plantation Eucalypts’ 1995, CRC for Temperate Hardwood Forestry – IUFRO, Hobart</ref>
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''Eucalyptus'' spp. trees naturally produce volatile oils such as '''cineole''' and '''pineole''' - constituents of eucalyptus oil. Positive correlations exists between the concentrations of cineole and concentrations of '''
formulated
phloroglucinol compounds''' (FPCs) in several Eucalypts,<ref>Foley, W. and E. Lassak ‘The potential of bioactive constituents of Eucalyptus foliage as non-wood products from plantations’: A report for the RIRDC/Land & Water Australia/FWPRDC/MDBC, Joint Venture Agroforestry Program, Publication No 04/154, RIRDC Project No ANU-56A, 2004</ref> suggesting that selective breeding trees for increased cineole quantities will also result in the selection for increased FPCs. Research into selective breeding of Eucalyptus with higher concentrations of these toxic compounds to deter browsing herbivores such as wallabies (''Marcopus rugogriseus'' and ''Thylogale billardierii'' and possums (''Trichosurus vulpecula''), and developmental stages of leaf beetles and gum moths has been carried out.<ref name="Harcourt">Harcourt, R., X. Zhu, D. Llewellyn, E. Dennis and Peacock, J. ‘Genetic Engineering for Insect Resistance in Temporary Plantation Eucalypts’ 1995, CRC for Temperate Hardwood Forestry – IUFRO, Hobart</ref>
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Tree seedling breeding programmes advertise that clonal propagation technologies are used. Also, the current literature on commercial tree biotechnology regularly includes terms such as ‘selective breeding’, ‘elite trees’, ‘enhance pest and environmental tolerance of plantation trees’, ‘genetic enhancement’, ‘supply and propagate superior germplasm’, ‘determine the genes controlling critical wood quality factors’, and include references to areas such as ‘gene association’, ‘gene tagging’ and ‘gene knockouts – RNAi’ technologies.<ref name ="GPL newsletter"/><ref name="Hamilton1"/>
Fifteen years ago
the ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (Bt) endotoxin gene was incorporated into ''E. globulus'' and ''E. nitens'' and a synergistic effect of the Bt protein and the volatile oil, cineole was shown to exist.<ref name="Harcourt"/> Expressed Bt endotoxin was damaging to the midgut allowing cineole to enter the insect haemolymph and exert a toxic effect at lower concentrations than occurred when Bt endotoxin was not present.
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Tree seedling breeding programmes advertise that clonal propagation technologies are used. Also, the current literature on commercial tree biotechnology regularly includes terms such as ‘selective breeding’, ‘elite trees’, ‘enhance pest and environmental tolerance of plantation trees’, ‘genetic enhancement’, ‘supply and propagate superior germplasm’, ‘determine the genes controlling critical wood quality factors’, and include references to areas such as ‘gene association’, ‘gene tagging’ and ‘gene knockouts – RNAi’ technologies.<ref name ="GPL newsletter"/><ref name="Hamilton1"/>
In the 1990s
the ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (Bt) endotoxin gene was incorporated into ''E. globulus'' and ''E. nitens'' and a synergistic effect of the Bt protein and the volatile oil, cineole was shown to exist.<ref name="Harcourt"/> Expressed Bt endotoxin was damaging to the midgut allowing cineole to enter the insect haemolymph and exert a toxic effect at lower concentrations than occurred when Bt endotoxin was not present.
Two informative contributions on GE (genetically engineered) ''Eucalyptus'' trees grown in plantations<ref>Arbogen seeks to legalise Genetically Engineered ''Eucalyptus'' trees in USA [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/6/60/Arborgen_seeks_to_legalize_Genetically_Engineered_Eucalyptus_Trees_in_United_States_2009.pdf]pdf here</ref> and whether Tasmania grows toxic plantation trees<ref>Alexander, M. Bt toxin and Imidocloprid from 'Lethal Trees' 2009 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/9/9c/Bt_Toxin_and_Imidacloprid_from_Lethal_Trees.pdf] pdf here</ref> are included here.
Two informative contributions on GE (genetically engineered) ''Eucalyptus'' trees grown in plantations<ref>Arbogen seeks to legalise Genetically Engineered ''Eucalyptus'' trees in USA [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/6/60/Arborgen_seeks_to_legalize_Genetically_Engineered_Eucalyptus_Trees_in_United_States_2009.pdf]pdf here</ref> and whether Tasmania grows toxic plantation trees<ref>Alexander, M. Bt toxin and Imidocloprid from 'Lethal Trees' 2009 [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/9/9c/Bt_Toxin_and_Imidacloprid_from_Lethal_Trees.pdf] pdf here</ref> are included here.
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===Genetically engineered trees, Tasmania's connection===
===Genetically engineered trees, Tasmania's connection===
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Research and development of GM Eucalypts commenced in 1986 at DeBoer Drive Ridgley in Northern Tasmania. The '''CSIRO Division of Forestry''' worked in collaboration with '''APM, Australian Newsprint Mills, North Eucalypt Technologies''' and '''Kimberly Clarke''' under the leadership of Dr. Rod Griffin.[referenced required] It was funded by the Australian federal Government and '''North Forest Products''' (later '''Gunns Ltd'''). North Eucalypt Technologies was the R&D division of North Forest Products. The goal was to enhance ''E.nitens'' and ''E.globulus'' for Kraft pulp production increase tolerance to insect attack and herbicide sprays.
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Research and development of GM Eucalypts commenced in 1986 at DeBoer Drive Ridgley in Northern Tasmania. The '''CSIRO Division of Forestry''' worked in collaboration with '''APM, Australian Newsprint Mills, North Eucalypt Technologies''' and '''Kimberly Clarke''' under the leadership of Dr. Rod Griffin.[referenced required] It was funded by the Australian federal Government and '''North Forest Products''' (later '''Gunns Ltd'''). North Eucalypt Technologies was the R&D division of North Forest Products. The goal was to enhance ''E.nitens'' and ''E.globulus'' for Kraft pulp production increase tolerance to insect attack and herbicide sprays.
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In February 1995 '''Dutch Shell''' filed a patent covering transgenic eucalypts containing ''Agrobacterium'' DNA.<ref>Agrobacterium mediated transformation of eucalyptus
In February 1995 '''Dutch Shell''' filed a patent covering transgenic eucalypts containing ''Agrobacterium'' DNA.<ref>Agrobacterium mediated transformation of eucalyptus
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EP 0808372 A1 http://google.com/patents/wo1996025504ai?cl=en</ref> '''British American
Tabacco
''' filed a patent to use this bacterium in transgenic research with ''E. globulus'' under their research company (Advances Technologies Cambridge). By 1997 a Biotechnology Symposium in the Australian capital, Canberra heard a paper titled: ''Transgenic Insect and Herbicide Tolerant Eucalypts'' by Danny Llewellyn from the '''CSIRO''' and another paper ''Genetic Transformation of Eucalyptus Species towards the Modification of Fibre Characteristics'' by Martin Maunders from British Amercican Tobacco.
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EP 0808372 A1 http://google.com/patents/wo1996025504ai?cl=en</ref> '''British American
Tobacco
''' filed a patent to use this bacterium in transgenic research with ''E. globulus'' under their research company (Advances Technologies Cambridge). By 1997 a Biotechnology Symposium in the Australian capital, Canberra heard a paper titled: ''Transgenic Insect and Herbicide Tolerant Eucalypts'' by Danny Llewellyn from the '''CSIRO''' and another paper ''Genetic Transformation of Eucalyptus Species towards the Modification of Fibre Characteristics'' by Martin Maunders from British Amercican Tobacco.
By 1999 Gillian Rasmusson, a plant scientist working for North Forest Products told the Australian Broadcasting Corportation that advances in genetic engineering could help create a super plantation tree and help take pressure off Tasmanian native forests. "Genetic engineering has the potential to reduce the time that it takes to improve the quality of your plantation or the trait that you're looking for very quickly", Rasmusson said.<ref>''Researcher moves closer to engineering supertree''' ABC Online News 21 January 1999</ref>
By 1999 Gillian Rasmusson, a plant scientist working for North Forest Products told the Australian Broadcasting Corportation that advances in genetic engineering could help create a super plantation tree and help take pressure off Tasmanian native forests. "Genetic engineering has the potential to reduce the time that it takes to improve the quality of your plantation or the trait that you're looking for very quickly", Rasmusson said.<ref>''Researcher moves closer to engineering supertree''' ABC Online News 21 January 1999</ref>
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The scope of this genetic work to be undertaken in Australia was detailed in the '''Australian Senate''' in 2000.<ref>Question No. 2558 (Senator Bob Brown) Genetic Manipulation: Small-scale contained research [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/b/b3/Hansard_extract_Parliamentary_Question_on_Notice_No._2558_09Nov2000..pdf]</ref> By 2002 the Australian Senate was informed that this research had been completed and no licence for permitted release was requested under the Australian ''Gene Technology Act 2000''.<ref>Question No. 168 (Senator Bob Brown [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/e/e8/Hansard_extract_Parliamentary_Question_on_Notice_No._168_15May2002.pdf]</ref>
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The scope of this genetic work to be undertaken in Australia was detailed in the '''Australian Senate''' in 2000.<ref
name="Senate Question"
>Question No. 2558 (Senator Bob Brown) Genetic Manipulation: Small-scale contained research [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/b/b3/Hansard_extract_Parliamentary_Question_on_Notice_No._2558_09Nov2000..pdf]</ref> By 2002 the Australian Senate was informed that this research had been completed and no licence for permitted release was requested under the Australian ''Gene Technology Act 2000''.<ref>Question No. 168 (Senator Bob Brown [http://www.sourcewatch.org/images/e/e8/Hansard_extract_Parliamentary_Question_on_Notice_No._168_15May2002.pdf]</ref>
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*"The '''University of Tasmania''' is looking at facilitating root induction and regeneration of genetically transformed eucalypts (''E. nitens, E globulus'') in the laboratory using genes from ''Agrobacterium rhizogenes''(''rol'' genes) and ''A. tumefaciens'' (auxin biosynthesis genes). ... The '''CSIRO''' aims to develop ways of ensuring sterility of transgenic trees by disrupting key genes un the flowering pathway; improve rooting ability of eucalypt cuttings; and improve the tolerance of eucalypt trees to insects and biodegradable herbicides. ... Various species of ''Eucalyptus'' and various hybrids have been transformed with insecticidal genes from the bacterium, ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (CryIA(c) and CryIIIA); herbibicide (Basta) tolerance genes from the bacterium ''A. tumefaciens''; antibiotic (hygromycin, kanamycin) resistance marker genes from the bacterium ''E. coli''; -glucronidase report gene from ''E. coli'', green fluorscent protein marker gene from jellyfish, sense and antisense versions of ''Eucalyptus'' flowering regulatory genes or ''Arabidopsis'' (plant) equivalents; and genes involved in root develipoment from ''Arabidopsis'' or their ''Eucalyptus'' equivalents."<ref name="Senate Question"/>
[TO BE CONTINUED]
[TO BE CONTINUED]