Sugarcane scientific name is Saccharum Officinarum. It is true seeded plant. It has five sub-species.
1. Saccharum Spontanium.
2. Saccharum Sinensis.
3. Saccharum Baribreri.
4. Saccharum Robustum.
5. Saccharum Officinarum (1)
Sugarcane is any of several species of tall perennial true grasses of the genus Saccharum, tribe Andropogoneae, native to the warm temperature to tropical regions of South Asia and used for sugar production. Sugarcane are stout jointed fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar and measured six meters ( 6 to 9 feet) tall. All sugarcane species interbreed and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrid (2).
Sugarcane belongs to grass family (Poaceae), an economically important seed plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice and sorghum and many forage crops. The main product of sugarcane is sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. Sucrose extracted and purified in specialized ill factories is used as raw material in human food industries or is fermented to produce ethanol. Ethanol is produced on a large scale by the Brazilian sugarcane industry (2).
Other than sugar products derived from sugarcane include Falernum, molasses, rum, Cachaca (A traditional sprit from Brazil), bagasse and ethanol (2).
A sugarcane is an important cash crop of Pakistan. It is an important source of income and employment for the farming community throughout the year. It forms the basis o0f many important industries e.g. guar, molasses, alcohol, sugar beverages, chipboard, paper, confectionary and provide raw materials to many other industries such as chemical, plastic, synthetic fiber, insecticides and detergents. Among 105 countries the World growing sugarcane, Pakistan rank 4th in area and 14th in production and 16th in yield (3).
Sugarcane is a perennial grass that forms lateral shorts at the base to produce multiple stems. Typically 3-4 meters high and about 5 cm diameter. The stem grows into cane stalk which when mature constitutes approximately 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is typically composed of 11-16% fiber, 12-16% soluble sugar, 2-3% non-sugar, 63-73% water. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, insect, disease, control varieties and harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60-70 tones/hectares per year (2).
In Pakistan there are two planting seasons for sugarcane are fall and spring. Fall planting starts from 1st week of September and continue till mid October in Sindh. Spring planting starts from mid February and last until end of March. September planted crop usually produces 25-35% higher yield.
Seed rate is 8-9 tones of stripped cane/hectare for thick varieties and 6-7 tonnes for medium varieties to produce desired plant population of about 0.15 million canes/hectare. A spacing of 1 m between the row for thick varieties and 0.60-0.75 m for medium varieties, allow sufficient space for operation like intercultural and earthling up. Row spacing is 90 cm to 1m. Two budded double set should be placed end to end in furrow covered with 2-3 cm soil layer. About 3-4 tonnes seeds (80 to 100 maunds) of thin cane varieties and 4-5 tonnes seeds (100-120 maunds of thick varieties are sufficient to plant one acre (4).
Sugarcane planted in two row strip 90 cm apart not only rationed well but also give higher yield for each 3 planting treatment than 3 and 4 rows strip planting system. In Sindh crop needs nitrogen 70-110 kg/acre, phosphorus 50 kg/acre and potash 50-70 kg/acre. September crop give additional 20-40 kg nitrogen/acre. Fertilizer bags/acre-ureas-2.25-4, DAP-2.26, MOP/SOP-2.5-1.75/2.3 (4).
Weed Gesopax Combi (80WP) may be applied 1.4 kg/acre in medium texture soil, 1.8 kg/acre for heavy soil in 100-120 liters/water. Each field should have 16-20 irrigation/year (4). Sugarcane is a high delta crop and requires 64-66 inches of water in sindh (3). Irrigation schedule in Sindh is March to April, 12-14 days, May to June, 8-10 days, July to August, 10-15 days, September to October, 15-20 days and November to December, 20-30 days (4).
Stop irrigation 25-30 days before harvest of crop; do not leave the harvested crop for long in the field. Different varieties planted may be harvested according to their maturity. Early maturity varieties start during November. Mid season during December and late maturity varieties during January. The crop harvested in February and March gives good ratoon crop. The maturing/harvesting age of sugarcane in Pakistan is 10-12 months (4).
The average sugarcane yield is between 40-54 tons/hectare. Average yield in the sugarcane in the world is around 65 metric tons/hectare and Asia, 65.4, while china, 77.1, Thailand 92.6, Australia, 75.5 and Egypt 105 tons/hectare. The sugar recovery is 8.5% against the obtainable recovery of 10.5%. Pakistan has all the resources to produce high yield of sugarcane, yet it could neither produce sugar for export tin the international market on a competitive rate nor could it get rid of import to meet the local demand. In Sindh70% crop is planted in autumn and about 30% in spring. In Sindh it harvested takes place in October (3).
It require temperature 65-85 0F and need minimum of 250 frost free days. It includes both in Rabi and Kharif crop. Hyderabad and sukkur are sugarcane producing areas in Sindh (5). One bud can raise 40-50 sugarcane. Before sowing the crop a month ago, we have o do manuring 10-15 tons/acre (1).
Sugarcane is a cash crop but it is also used as livestock fodder (6). Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or temperate climate, with minimum of 60 cm (24 inches) of annual moisture. It is one of the most efficient photo synthesizers in the plant kingdom. It is a C4 plant able to convert up to one percent of incident solar energy into biomass (7). Sugarcane crop can produce over 15 kilogram of cane per square meter of Sunshine.
It requires plentiful supply of water for continuous period of more than 6-7 months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. Most of sugarcane grown between 22 0N and 22 0S and some up to 33 0N to 35 0S.(8).
Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile wel drained mollisols, through heavy cracking vertisols, infertile acid oxisols, peaty histosols and rocky andisols (2).
Both plentiful water and sunshine increase cane production although sugarcane produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method. Each cutting must contain at-least one bud, the cutting are hand planted but billet planting is common. Billet harvested form a mechanical harvester and planted by a machine that open and recloses the ground (2).
Once planted a stand can be harvested several times after each harvest, the can send-up new stalk called rations. Successive harvest gives decreasing yield eventually justifying replanting. 2-10 harvest is usually made depending upon the type of culture. Sugarcane are harvested by hand and mechanically. Skilled harvester can cut 500 kilogram (1,100 lbs) of sugar and per hour (9).
Pest of sugarcane.
The cane beetle (also known as cane grub) , can reduce crop yield by eating roots. It can be controlled with Imidacloprid (Confidoe) or Chlorphyrifos (Lorsband), other important pest are larvae of some butterfly/moth species including the turnip moth, the sugarcane borer (Diatraea Saccharlis), the Mexican rice borer (Earcuma loftini), leaf cutting aunts, termites, spitteting (especially Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopieta) and beetle Migdolus fryanus, the plant-hopper insect Eumetopina flavipes act as a virus victor. This causes a sugarcane disease ramu stunt (10).
Pathogen.
Numerous pathogen infect sugarcane such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by Phytoplasma, whiptail disease or sugarcane smut. Pak Kah bocing caused by Fussarium moniliformie, Xanthomonas Axonopodis bacteria causes Gumming disease and red rot disease caused by colletotrichum Falcatum viral disease infecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus, maize streak virus and sugarcane yellow leaf virus (2).
Nitrogen fixation
Some sugarcane varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in association with the bacterium Glucoacetobacter diazotrophicus (11) unlike legumes and other nitrogen fixing plants that form root nodules in the soil in association with bacter, G.diaszotrophicus lives within the intercellular spaces of sugarcane stem (12) (13).Coating seeds with the bacteria is a newly developed technology than can enable every crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use (14).
Sugarcane is the world largest crop by production quantity (15) in 2012. FAO estimates it was cultivated on about 26.0 million hectares. In more than 90 countries, with worldwide harvest of 1.83 billion tons. Brazil was the largest producer of sugarcane in the world. The next five major producers decreasing amount of production were India, china, Thailand, Pakistan and Mexico (2).
Brazil lead the world in sugarcane production in 2011, was 734,000 TMT harvests (15). India was the second largest producer with 342d, 382 TMT tons and china the third largest producer with 115,125 TMT tons harvest. The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crop in 2011 was 70.54 tons per hectare (15).
Sugarcane was cultivated in Pakistan on an area of 1.13 million hectares in 2013-14 as compared to 1.128 million hectares the previous year. The country is likely to produced 5.167 million tons of sugar in 2013-14 as compared to previous production of 5.03 million tons against the domestic requirement of 4.2 million tons out of total production output of 5.167 million tons of sugar. Punjab was likely to produce 3.137 million tons against previous year’s total of 3.166 million tons. Sindh 1.73 million tons against the previous year production of 1.531 million tons and KP. 0.3 Million tons against the previous year of total of 0.342 million tons (16).
Pakistan is the biggest consumer of sugar in South Asia with 24 kg/capita consumption per year, where in India it is 14 kg, Bangladesh. 10 kg and china 11 kg (3). In year 1999-2000 the area under sugarvane3 in Pakistan was 1.0098 million/ha and cane yield was 45.80 t/ha, sugar production was 2.42million tones and sugar recovery was 8.32% in the country (17). In Pakistan the area under sugarcane was 759,000/ha and it yield is 35.4 t/ha in 2001 (4) The national average cane yield (~47 t/ha). In Sindh it is 53 t/ha (4).
Following are the reasons for low production of sugarcane
• Un-scientific/un-systematic agricultural practices.
• Improper selection of land.
• Improper preparation of land.
• Conventional planting methods.
• Late planting.
• Moisture stress at critical stage of crop growth.
• Poor management of ratoon crop.
• Early and late harvest.
• Environmental resistance.
• Low soil fertility.
• Defective varieties.
• Un-controlled of pest, disease and weed.
• Variation in pries.
• Unavailability of resources for the growers (4).
• Lack of suitable and high yielding varieties.
• Water scarcity.
• Water logging and salinity.
• Poor agronomic practice.
• Poor management of ratoon crop.
• Lack of plant protection (18).
The current level of sugar prices in the country not only affect the common person but also forced the Government to revise the progress of sugar. Industry to control the price hikes. It increases in October 2004 from 20.78 to Rs.82.0. Current sugar shortage is being met by the import of sugar from outside the county, which comes to Rs. 26 presently (3).
In Pakistan mills with production capacity of 4.867 million tons. These mills require about 65 million tons of sugarcane to run in full capacity. The sugar production capacity of these mills is about 5 million tons of sugar; however the sugar production is about 3 million tons an average.
The production takes about 4-5 days after the harvest of sugar crop to off load the trolleys at mill gate. This led not only to reduction in weight by about 2% but also affect the recovery of sugar by 0.1% each day.
Pakistan has losses about 5% sugars in producing bold crystal sugar to meet the consumer demand. Mill inefficiency is also one reason for low sugar production. Juice extraction efficiency of the current mill stand around 90-92% instead of 98%. Cane with trash as also affect the mill efficiency. In Pakistan about 90% sugar is extracted from sugarcane and 10% from sugar beet, in favorable year there is more sugar production than the requirement and adverse years the country fall short resulting in import (3).
Sugarcane varieties.
• BL-4 Barbados + Lyallpur.
• Potjava varieties in Indonesia.
• Col in India , 113-116 combitor+ Lyallpur.
• BF Barbados + Faisalabad 129.
• BF-162, Thatta 10, SPSG-26, CP Canal Point (19).
Pakistan varieties of sugarcane.
Cp.77-400, Cp-72-2086, SPSG-26, Th.10, CP.43-33, CPF. 237, Mardan.92, Mardan.93, CP.65-357. In Sindh the early varieties are. BL.4, BL.19 and Trition and Midseason varieties is BF. 129 (4), and new varieties are NIA-98, NIA-2004, NIA, 2010 and NIA.2011 (20) and Larkana. 2004 (21).
Average production of sugarcane in Pakistan is 458 maunds/acre, while it production in different countries of the world is about 800-1000 maunds/acre. Also pest and disease cause 10-70% decrease in production. These things are overcomes by the use of tissue culture varieties which have following advantages.
• Plants are vigorous, healthy, disease free and premium quality.
• Yield increase from 50-100%, depending upon environmental conditions.
• Sugar recovery increased by 1-2 %.
• Seed sets germination is almost 100% which reduces the seed requirement to one third.
• Vigorous growth tendency due to profuse root system development which normally result healthy growth and lodging.
• Average tiller age observed with 20-40 tillers/plants.
• Reduce lodging which will also decrease the infestation of insect and pest.
• Lowe production cost due to high sugar and cane yield per unit area.
• Vigorous growth and development results greater disease resistant.
• Availability of high quality virus and disease free seeds at affordable price round the year.
• Every bud sprouts at least thrice (22).
Tissue culture varieties of sugarcane.
Cp 43-33, CP. 77-400, CP.81-1435, ABT. Supper, BF. 162, SPSG.26, SPF. 234, BL.4, T.10.(22). Chining varieties ROC. 1, YT.53, YT.55< YT.236 from Guangzhou agricultural Research Institute, China under Pk-China cooperation project on agriculture were imported YT. 55 and ROC.1 exhibited better performance and produce maximum cane thickness, plant height and weight. (5).
Several Chinese as well as local sugar cane varieties were optimized for hormone concentration and laboratory condition. Shooting response of Hoth-300, Hoth-409, YT-236, YT-5, YT-55, ROC.1 for Kinetin was optimum in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/l and root was last at 2 mg IBA/l .The varieties having potential for producing good cane and sugar yield as well as resistant to insect and pest and disease will be selected for commercial cultivation.
Thatta 300 sugarcane varieties (developed through exotic fuzz from Houma).Thatta-127 submitted to VEC. Sugarcane varieties Hoth-2109, Hoth-311, Hoth-318, Hoth -326, Hoth-344, Hoth-348, Hoth-409 has been registered with Federal Seed certification department. Government of Pakistan (5). Varieties from china vtz. ROC.01, ROC-16, Roc-20, ROC-22, YT-53, YT-55, YT-236 are under testing and evolution (5).
Recommended varieties for Sindh.
Early maturity BL-4, Midseason. PR-1000, BF-129, Late maturity-NIA-98 ( for lower Sindh ) area Sindh to Hyderabad, while upper sindh ( area north to Hyderabad) Early maturity BL-4, L-113, L-116, Triton, SPSG-26 and late maturity NIA.98 .(4).
Seeds may be treated with hot water 52 0C for 30 minutes and fungicides. This will help better germination and control of many diseases. Treatment with running water has been suggested to remove fermentation products and inhibitors from the cutting Indolacetic acid (IAA) or Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) treatment enhance root growth, but delay bud development (4).
Acetylene promotes the growth of cutting substances including ethyl alcohol, ammonium phosphate; complete nutrient solution and ferrous sulphate have all on occasion proved beneficial for germination. (4).
To prevent the seed set being attacked by fungal disease and also to improve germination the seed set are dipped in 0.5% solution of Agallol (3%) or 0.25% of Aretan (6%) or Tafasam (6%) before planting.Aretan improves germination and keep off fungal attack, while gamma BHC keep away the termite and shoot borer (18).
Processing.
Traditionally sugarcane processing requires two stages: Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and “mill-water” sugar is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar extraction mill. Intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally in white color during the crystallization process. Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color inducing molecules as well as to stabilize the sugar juice during evaporation. (23) (24).
Milling.
Sugarcane processing produces can sugar (Sucrose) from sugarcane. Other product of processing includes biogases, molasses, and filter cake. Bagass the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted is useful for several purposes (25), like.
• Fuel for the boiler and kiln.
• Production of paper, paper board products and reconstituted plane board.
• Agricultural mulch.
• As a raw material for production of chemicals.
• Dried filter cake is used as animal feed supplement, fertilizer and source of sugarcane wax.
• Molasses is produced in two forms. Blackstrap, which has characteristic strong flavor because of its vitamins and mineral content and pure molasses syrup.
• Blackstrap molasses is sold as a food and deity supplement. It is also common ingredient in animal feed, is used to produce ethanol and rum, and in the manufacturing of citric acid. Pure molasses syrup, invert sugar or corn syrup. Both forms of molasses are used in backing (2).
Refining.
Sugar refining further purifies the raw sugar (2).
Sugarcane uses.
Brazil uses sugarcane to produce sugar and ethanol for gasoline,, ethanol blends (gasohol) a locally transportation fuel. In India sugarcane is used to produce sugar Jiggery and alcohol beverage.
Cane ethanol.
Ethanol is generally available as a byproduct of sugar production. It can be used as biofuel alternative to gasoline. In Brazil gasoline is required to contain at least 22% bioethanol (26). The production of ethanol from sugarcane is more energy efficient than from corn or sgugarbeet or palm vegetable oil, particularly if an bagasses is used to produce heat and power for the process.
• A text book on renewable energy (27) describes the energy transformation.
• Per hectare per year, the biomass production corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average isolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugarcane is 0.38% (2).
• 1.35 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b and c are transformed in to 70 liters of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GT. The practical sucrose ethanol conversion efficiency is therefore 76% (compared with the theoretical 97%).
• One hectare of sugarcane yields 4,000 liters of ethanol per year (without any additional energy input because the bagasses produced exceeds the amount needed to distil the final product). This is however does not include the energy used in tilling, transportation and so on. Thus the solar energy to ethanol conversion efficiency is 0.13%.
Bagasses application.
Sugarcane crop is able to efficiently fix solar energy yielding some 55 tons of dry mater per hectare of land annually. After harvest the crop produces sugar juice and bagasses, the fibrous dry matter. This dry matter is biomass with potential as abundant source of energy for large producers of sugar cane, such as Brazil, India and China.
Electricity production.
Bagasses are usually burned to produce steam, which in turn create electricity. Current technologies such as those are used in Mauritius produce over 100 KWH of electricity per tons of bagasses, with a total world harvest of 1 billion tones of sugarcane per year. The global energy potential from bagasses of over 100,000 GWH (28). Recent cogeneration technology plants are being designed to produce from 200 to over 300 KWH of electricity per tones of biogases (29) (30). As sugarcane is a seasonal crop shortly after harvest the supply of bagasses would peak requiring power generation plant to strategically manage the shortage of bagesses.
Biogas production.
A greener alternate via to burning bagasses for the production of electricity is to convert bagasses in to biogas. Technologies are being developed to use enzymes to transform bagasses in to advanced biofuel and biogas. Not only could this process realize a greater energy potential the release of green house gasses would be drastically less than simply burning bagasses (31).
Sugarcane as food.
Sugarcane juice, molasses used as sweetener, alcohol beverages and candies (2).
Genetic modification of sugarcane.
Genetically modified sugarcane that incorporate gene to increase resistance to biotic and a biotic stress, could play a major role in achieving this goal. However to bring GM sugarcane to the market, it is necessary to follow a regulatory process that will evaluate the environmental and health impact of this crop (32).
• Metabolic genetic variability will be help fuel during the strain selection studies for sugarcane inoculation is association with sugarcane breeding program (33).
• Currently community attitude toward genetically modified plants are quite negative, with the sugar industry having apparently accepted the view that sugar from genetically modified cane is regarded so badly by the consumers at the present time that it could not be marketed successfully. In order industries genetically modified cultivars that are environment friendly and not designed for human consumption. One of the main causes of public concern about genetic engineering has been the lack of information about the process and type of product, particularly non-food products that can be developed (34).
• Genetically modified sugarcane is regarded so badly by consumers at the present time that it could not be marketed successfully.
• Although research is continued on GM sugarcane and USA-70, which is virus resistance and herbicide tolerance, virus, insect and bacterial resistant and alter sugar content is possible in near future in USA and Brazil (36).
• The work on GM sugarcane is also continuing in Egypt, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, India, Cuba and South Africa (36).
GM aims for research are as under
• Resistance against pathogen.
• Virus resistance e.g against mosaic virus.
• Bacterial resistance.
• Weed control.
• Tolerance to herbicide, contain the active ingredient glyphosate.
• Insect resistance, in particular against borer and larvae of certain butter fillies.
• Drought resistant.
• High tolerance to salt, for cultivation on high saline soil (36).
Renewable primary product, energy crop.
• Production of bioethanol.
• Increase sugar content.
• Production of pharmaceutically active substances.
• Molecular pharming: use as bio-reactor to produce pharmaceuticals (36).
Conclusion.
Pakistan research should be concentrated on introduction of GM sugarcane and also try to USA-70 variety in Pakistan to meet the growing demand of the country.
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