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Wisconsin Gov. Scott Walker eats a pork chop during a visit to the Iowa State Fair, Monday, Aug. 17, 2015, in Des Moines, Iowa.
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Ben Carson’s family festivals in Iowa earlier this year included all the staples of a family-focused caucus campaign event: music, games, a stump speech — and 3,500 ears of corn.
At a cost of $2,184, the Carson campaign purchased the sweet corn from Honeybadger BBQ in Windsor Heights to serve to attendees.
“It was something that we thought was part of the festival atmosphere,” said Carson Iowa strategist Ryan Rhodes. “When the straw poll got canceled, we threw our family festivals.”
It’s the kind of thing that’s indicative of Iowa caucus campaign spending. Personal. Hundreds or thousands of dollars, not millions. And tailored to small-town Midwestern tastes.
Despite Iowa’s outsize influence in the nation’s presidential nominating process, political spending is still funneled primarily to coastal states, which house major political consulting and advertising firms. Iowa accounts for just 3 percent of the $153.3 million that presidential campaigns have spent so far this cycle, filings with the Federal Election Commission show.
The $4.7 million in spending tallied in Iowa, as of Sept. 30, reflects the odd — and at times monotonous — details of life on the road and the face-to-face campaigning that precedes the state’s first-in-the-nation caucuses.
Presidential campaigns spent a combined $37,600 at Casey’s General Store, fueling autos and staffers in their treks across 99 counties. All told, they spent $3,417 on entry fees, concert tickets and parking at a can’t-miss-it summertime stop, the Iowa State Fair.
Food and beverage purchases ran the full spectrum: Chris Christie’s campaign logged a bill of $512.48 at the upscale 801 Chophouse steak house in Des Moines, as well as a $59.42 tab at the Village Inn in Waterloo.
Pizza Ranch, which have become a staple of Iowa’s caucus campaigns by offering free meeting space, saw about $831 in candidate spending.
“There are some towns where you’ll have a bar, a church and a Pizza Ranch,” said Alex Latcham, who worked on the advance teams for Michele Bachmann and Mitt Romney during their 2012 campaigns. “And usually we go with the Pizza Ranch.”
Other spending is more distinctive, like the $351.96 dished out at a Guitar Center in West Des Moines earlier this year by the Carson campaign (it paid for for microphones and speakers). Or the $2,645 worth of in-kind printing and postage the Carly Fiorina campaign reported receiving from Iowa entrepreneur Bruce Rastetter.
John Davis, a veteran Democratic staffer who worked on John Edwards’ presidential campaign in 2007, recalled the campaign preparing for the Iowa Democrats’ Jefferson Jackson dinner that year by renting a couple of 30-foot cherry pickers, which elevated signs that shot fire into the sky.
But more often than not, he said, campaigns avoid extravagances in an effort to save money.
In later states and even in the final weeks of the Iowa campaign, the bills get bigger as crowds swell. But early on, a small sum can demonstrate in a stomach-gratifying way that a candidate cares.
When Wisconsin Gov. Scott Walker was running late for an event in Dubuque back in July, he bought a round of pizza for attendees. The tab for this good-will gesture? A couple hundred bucks, a staffer said.
Here’s a look at how presidential campaigns are spending their money, on things both big and small, while they’re on the trail in Iowa and across the country.
DEMOCRATS
Hillary Clinton, former U.S. secretary of state
Where she’s spending across the country
1. New York: $12,970,230
2. District of Columbia: $8,495,014
3. New Jersey: $5,580,445
4. Virginia: $4,858,179
5. California: $2,178,449
Where Iowa falls: No. 9, with $813,715 in spending
Total national spending: $43,457,963
Takeaways: Clinton spent the most in her home state of New York. It appears the majority of Clinton’s payroll expenses are listed out of that state, where the campaign reported spending $9,172,074 in payroll.
Of note: The Clinton campaign received an in-kind donation of $500 worth of office furniture from Anthony Weiner. Weiner, who resigned from Congress in 2011 after a sexting scandal, is married to Huma Abedin, personal aide to Clinton.
Where she’s spending in Iowa
1. Maysville: $182,404
2. Des Moines: $41,909
3. Cedar Rapids: $22,521
4. West Des Moines: $21,111
5. Moravia: $10,416
Takeaways: Clinton spent $182,404 in Maysville, population 179, on event production through Elite Productions Services LLC. That amounts to a little more than $1,000 for every resident of the city. A spokesman said the campaign uses Elite Productions for the majority of its events across the state, for items like staging, seating, press risers and sound. In Moravia, the campaign spent $10,370 on lodging at Honey Creek Resort, the state-owned resort on Rathbun Lake.
Of note: Clinton spent more than $22,000 in Cedar Rapids. About $2,000 of that was on pizza at Need Pizzeria.
Martin O’Malley, former governor of Maryland
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Maryland: $574,057
2. Virginia: $557,212
3. District of Columbia: $498,710
4. Iowa: $180,419
5. New York: $144,442
Total national spending: $2,458,003
Takeaways: O’Malley has spent almost one-fourth of his $2.4 million in campaign expenses in Maryland, where he was governor for eight years beginning in 2007 and where his campaign headquarters is located. Salaries accounted for $233,894. The campaign paid nearly $54,000 to Colleen Martin-Lauer, a fundraiser who supported O’Malley’s gubernatorial runs.
Of note: From July through September, the campaign spent $3,373.81 on rides with Uber, the ride-sharing service powered by smartphones.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Des Moines: $138,492
2. Johnston: $16,671
3. Waterloo: $5,440
4. Ankeny: $4,346
5. Kellogg: $3,667
Takeaways: The O’Malley camp spent $11,200 in Des Moines renting space for its Iowa headquarters, near the city’s downtown. Another $1,121 went to office supplies purchased from the Koch Brothers. That’s Koch Brothers office supply store, no connection to GOP powerbrokers Charles or David Koch.
Of note: O’Malley’s campaign spent $1,508 at the White Star Ale House in downtown Cedar Rapids, where he held a meet-and-greet in July ahead of the Iowa Democratic Party’s Hall of Fame dinner.
Bernie Sanders, U.S. senator from Vermont
Where he’s spending across the country
1. District of Columbia: $4,407,247
2. Ohio: $2,551,979
3. Vermont: $1,772,764
4. Massachusetts: $1,188,488
5. Texas: $1,156,767
Where Iowa falls: No. 6, with $583,563 in spending
Total national spending: $14,508,558
Takeaways: Sanders shells out the most in Washington, D.C., where he spends much of his time as a U.S. senator. It’s also home to Revolution Messaging, which has received about $3.8 million for digital consulting and ad buys from the campaign. Other top-spending states are also home to big campaign vendors. In Ohio, it’s Tigereye, a company specializing in U.S. union-made products, such as T-shirts. That company has received about $2.5 million for producing “campaign paraphernalia.”
Of note: Not all the campaign’s spending has been Made in America. Records show the campaign spent $13,236.65 on consulting, event set-up and event planning with Marathon Enterprises, based in Toronto, Ontario.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Des Moines: $262,754
2. Maysville: $86,575
3. West Des Moines: $51,701
4. Davenport: $39,944
5. Cedar Rapids: $22,153
Takeaways: Sanders spent more than $86,000 in Maysville because an event production company the campaign regularly uses is based there. Elite Productions Services LLC is the same company used by his primary Democratic competitor, Hillary Clinton.
Of note: Staffers for this fighter for the middle class have spent nights at the Renaissance Hotel, as well as Doubletree and Hilton Garden Inn hotels in Iowa. But records show the campaign has also racked up about $770 on stays at Motel 6 in Des Moines and Waterloo.
REPUBLICANS
Jeb Bush, former governor of Florida
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Florida: $4,284,413
2. Texas: $2,636,212
3. Virginia: $2,139,178
4. District of Columbia: $1,264,990
5. Maryland: $825,335
Where Iowa falls: No. 16, with $66,453 in spending
Total national spending: $14,508,558
Takeaways: Much of the Bush campaign’s infrastructure and many of its consulting firms are in his home state of Florida. Firms and vendors from the Washington, D.C, metro area also are heavily represented.
Of note: Disbursements to David Kochel, the Des Moines-based consultant who’s serving as one of Bush’s top advisers, are recorded as paid in Florida, where Kochel temporarily relocated when he joined the campaign. Kochel was paid almost $73,000, more than all the Bush campaign spending recorded in Iowa during the period.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. West Des Moines: $21,502
2. Des Moines: $18,956
3. Indianola: $10,558
4. Ankeny: $8,082
5. Marion: $4,597
Takeaways: Most of the Bush campaign’s Iowa spending has gone to salaries and payments for campaign aides and advisers Tim Albrecht, David Oman, Susan Geddes and Philip Condo.
Of note: The $4,597 spent in Marion went to the Pate Family Trust. Records show the owner and manager of the trust is Velma M. Pate, the mother of Iowa Secretary of State Paul Pate. A spokesman for Pate said the trust owns office space that Bush is renting in Linn County. Democratic, Republican and independent campaigns alike have leased the space in the past, the spokesman said, including the Run Warren Run organization, which sought to draft Democratic U.S. Sen. Elizabeth Warren into the presidential race earlier this year.
Ben Carson, retired neurosurgeon
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Ohio: $6,886,446
2. Virginia: $6,048,052
3. Pennsylvania: $2,444,158
4. Texas: $775,061
5. New York: $659,529
Where Iowa falls: No. 11, with $229,529 in spending
Total national spending: $20,037,820
Takeaways: Virginia and Ohio claim the bulk of the campaign’s spending because its web services and payroll system are based in the two states. The campaign also paid $1.99 million to InfoCision in Cleveland for fundraising phone calls.
Of note: The Carson campaign spent nearly $49,000 on about 70,000 copies of Carson’s book, “Gifted Hands.” Spokesman Doug Watts said copies were given to people who donated to the campaign.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. West Des Moines: $84,225
2. Des Moines: $49,965
3. Mount Vernon: $22,999
4. Indianola: $15,752
5. Sheldon: $10,280
Takeaways: The majority of Carson’s spending in West Des Moines, $56,891, went to pay Ryan Rhodes, one of his top Iowa strategists through his firm, Murphy Nasica & Associates. Another $7,942 went to pay for stays at two West Des Moines hotels, the Hilton and Marriott.
Of note: The nearly $23,000 in expenses in Mount Vernon paid a campaign staffer. Carson also spent $351.96 at Guitar Center in West Des Moines to purchase a microphone and speakers and another $82 for recycling service at the Iowa Machine Shed in Urbandale.
Chris Christie, governor of New Jersey
Where he’s spending across the country
1. New Jersey: $1,363,253
2. Texas: $538,288
3. California: $263,886
4. Virginia: $118,463
5. Maryland: $88,577
Where Iowa falls: No. 12, with $39,658 in spending
Total national spending: $2,802,680
Takeaways: Christie has spent much of his money in his home state, paying staffers and consultants in New Jersey and shelling out more than $600,000 on media through a Princeton, N.J., advertising company called Jamestown Associates. Second is Texas, where Christie has spent money on political consultants, marketing and website services.
Of note: Christie spent $106,181 with an Austin company for web domain purchases. Earlier this year, www.chrischristie.com was owned by a computer programmer in Wisconsin. It’s now an official Christie campaign website.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. West Des Moines: $27,456
2. Des Moines: $9,182
3. Cedar Falls: $1,387
4. Newton: $1,250
5. Dubuque: $203
Takeaways: The majority of Christie’s spending was in West Des Moines, where two full-time staffers live. More than 90 percent of the money Christie has spent in Iowa has been in the Des Moines metro area.
Of note: Christie’s campaign has hit both ends of the restaurant spectrum in Iowa, from a $59.42 tab at the Village Inn in Waterloo to a $512.48 bill at the downtown Des Moines restaurant 801 Chophouse.
Ted Cruz, U.S. senator from Texas
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Virginia: $4,826,030
2. Texas: $1,712,639
3. Iowa: $1,216,670
4. California: $845,720
5. Illinois: $598,574
Total national spending: $12,593,862
Takeaways: A big chunk of the money spent in Virginia, $2,008,772, went to digital marketing and fundraising firm Campaign Solutions to rent voter lists to gather data. U.S. Sen. Joni Ernst, R-Iowa, also used Campaign Solutions during her 2014 run for the Senate. Cruz has spent the second-highest amount of money in Texas, where his campaign and much of his staff are headquartered.
Of note: Cruz’s campaign spent $3,569.76 on travel to Guam, a U.S. island territory. Cruz sent a consultant there earlier this year to try to secure Guam’s delegates. Cruz has also paid about $300 to companies based in Canada, mainly for licensing and software.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Brooklyn: $1,056,520
2. Des Moines: $141,854
3. Urbandale: $5,991
4. West Des Moines: $3,374
5. Cedar Rapids: $2,069
Takeaways: The bulk of Cruz’s Iowa spending went to Campaign HQ, a call center based in Brooklyn, Ia. He has paid the company more than $1 million so far this election cycle and also made a campaign stop at its offices earlier this year to rally employees.
Of note: Cruz’s campaign has typically stayed at hotels near Des Moines’ airport, including the Doubletree Des Moines and Holiday Inn Des Moines Airport. The campaign has made multiple trips to Johnny’s Italian Steakhouse, spending more than $660 over four separate meals at the Des Moines restaurant.
Carly Fiorina, former CEO of Hewlett-Packard
Where she’s spending across the country
1. Virginia: $997,538
2. District of Columbia: $776,957
3. California: $243,871
4. New York: $116,812
5. Colorado: $108,488
Where Iowa falls: No. 14, with $43,476 in spending
Total national spending: $2,884,096
Takeaways: Fiorina’s campaign is headquartered in Alexandria, Va., and much of her spending there is on payroll and office upkeep. She also hired Tusk Digital, a digital consulting firm based in D.C. In addition, the campaign employs financial advisers in California and New York. Colorado pops in the top five because it’s the home base for Kramer & Associates, the campaign’s legal consultants.
Of note: Fiorina’s campaign spent $185.94 in June on NHL.com (the National Hockey League’s website) for what is listed as “office supplies.” On July 2, the campaign paid $556.32 at the Iowa Events Center for “food and beverage.”
Where she’s spending in Iowa
1. Sioux City: $30,846
2. West Des Moines: $4,406
3. Alden: $3,095
4. Radcliffe: $1,935
5. Des Moines: $1,413
Takeaways: Fiorina’s campaign spent the most money in Sioux City because Christopher Rants, the campaign’s Iowa adviser, and his consulting firm are based there. Most of the other cities made the list due to in-kind contributions or travel costs.
Of note: Bruce Rastetter, the agribusiness entrepreneur, Iowa Board of Regents president and influential Republican donor, made an in-kind contribution to the Fiorina campaign of $2,645 worth of printing and postage in August.
Lindsey Graham, U.S. senator from South Carolina
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Virginia: $935,335
2. South Carolina: $572,526
3. Texas: $255,392
4. California: $212,953
5. Washington, D.C.: $183,239
Where Iowa falls: No. 14, with $60,172 in spending
Total national spending: $3,078,011
Takeaways: Graham used two political strategy consulting firms based in Alexandria, Va., that accounted for $211,350 of his expenditures there. He also used a number of services in his home state of South Carolina.
Of note: Graham recorded spending more than $335,000 nationally on travel — as well as $337.35 in travel insurance. Just in case.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. West Des Moines: $38,627
2. Des Moines: $14,670
3. Johnston: $5,225
4. Mason City: $1,124
5. Coralville: $251
Takeaways: More than $53,000 of the expenditures made in these cities went to pay campaign staffers and consultants. Much of the rest was spent at restaurants, including Tursi’s Latin King in Des Moines and Mondo’s in Coralville.
Of note: In late August, the Graham campaign spent $29 subscribing to The Des Moines Register.
Mike Huckabee, former governor of Arkansas
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Arkansas: $811,603
2. Georgia: $221,416
3. California: $217,346
4. New York: $198,331
5. Virginia: $190,526
Where Iowa falls: No. 11, with $86,326 in spending
Total national spending: $2,605,533
Takeaways: Nearly one-third of Huckabee’s $2.6 million in campaign expenses were spent in Arkansas, where he was governor for 10½ years and where his national campaign headquarters are located.
Of note: One-third of the $221,416 spent in Georgia, or $76,223.58, went to Delta Air Lines. Huckabee frequently quips during his campaign speeches on the amount of time he’s spent at the airport in Atlanta, one of Delta’s hubs. “When I die, I’ll probably have a layover in Atlanta before I go to heaven,” he said. In Iowa, the Huckabee campaign has spent more than $10,000 on charter flight services.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Des Moines: $35,886
2. Coralville: $17,775
3. Urbandale: $9,140
4. Ottumwa: $5,508
5. West Des Moines: $2,126
Takeaways: Huckabee’s campaign spent $17,775 in Coralville because a person on his staff, Sandra Ortale, lives there. The payments to Ortale included salary and reimbursements for travel and other expenses.
Of note: The most frequently stayed-at hotel chain? Fairfield Inn. The campaign spent $7,347 at the chain’s hotels in Ames, Cedar Rapids, Davenport, Des Moines and Waterloo.
John Kasich, governor of Ohio
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Ohio: $752,024
2. Utah: $153,658
3. California: $125,249
4. District of Columbia: $109,834
5. Virginia: $94,859
Where Iowa falls: No. 20, with $5,565 in spending
Total national spending: $1,710,543
Takeaways: Kasich is spending the most in his home state of Ohio, where he paid a number of staffers $140,867. Kasich told Ohio’s Columbus Dispatch in May that he would be fundraising in California. He has so far recorded $125,000 worth of expenditures in the state, about $96,000 of which was spent on items related to event production and fundraising.
Of note: Kasich paid $7,586 in health insurance premiums to United Health Care in Westerville, Ohio.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Des Moines: $5,565
Takeaways: Kasich has spent only seven days campaigning in Iowa this election cycle, and his spending reflects that. He paid $4,608.36 to Central Lighting and Equipment Inc., an event production company in Des Moines, and another $956.28 to the Holiday Inn Des Moines Airport.
Of note: Kasich has spent an average of $927.50 for each of the seven days he’s spent campaigning in Iowa.
George Pataki, former governor of New York
Where he’s spending across the country
1. New York: $198,602
2. New Hampshire: $44,990
3. South Carolina: $41,298
4. Florida: $16,900
5. Tennessee: $15,000
Where Iowa falls: No. 10, with $5,644 in spending
Total national spending: $391,224
Takeaways: Pataki’s campaign spent the most money in the candidate’s home state of New York, where his biggest expense was staff salaries and wages. The Pataki campaign has spent little in Iowa, investing significantly more resources in New Hampshire and South Carolina, which follow Iowa as early-voting states.
Of note: Not even presidential candidates are immune to extra flight fees. The campaign recorded a $35 baggage fee through Delta Airlines in Atlanta.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Des Moines: $5,644
Takeaways: The Pataki campaign paid its Iowa state director $4,712. The rest of its spending in the state went to stays at the Des Moines Marriott.
Of note: So far, Pataki has recorded only four expenditures in Iowa. He edges out John Kasich for the distinction of lowest-spending candidate. Neither Pataki nor Kasich has reported spending money outside of Des Moines.
Rand Paul, U.S. senator from Kentucky
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Virginia: $1,965,797
2. Texas: $835,695
3. Iowa: $487,401
4. Ohio: $469,401
5. Maryland: $459,470
Total national spending: $7,222,969
Takeaways: The campaign spent $1.64 million at multiple communications firms in Virginia for direct mail, e-marketing, media production and other associated costs. Saber Communications received $1.14 million of that for direct mail production and list rentals, including $171,723 for postage. In Texas, the Paul campaign spent $730,098 on online advertising with Harris Media.
Of note: The Paul campaign paid $110,768 to a private jet company, New Flight Charters, based in Wyoming. The most expensive bill was $44,150.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Davenport: $366,645
2. Des Moines: $50,394
3. Ames: $19,821
4. Iowa City: $14,655
5. Ankeny: $9,862
Takeaways: Paul spent the most in Davenport because his Iowa consulting and communications firm, Victory Enterprises, is there. The campaign paid more than $366,000 to the company for consulting, online store sales and promotional items. The company was founded by Paul’s chief Iowa strategist, Steve Grubbs. In Des Moines, the campaign spent $40,000 to rent a donor list from the Republican Party of Iowa.
Of note: Paul has spent money in only 10 Iowa cities. He has only one food expense: $503.85 at Johnny’s Italian Steakhouse in Des Moines.
Marco Rubio, U.S. senator from Florida
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Virginia: $1,862,142
2. Washington, D.C.: $1,394,408
3. South Carolina: $620,786
4. Maryland: $412,999
5. California: $365,169
Where Iowa falls: No. 9, with $149,782 in spending
Total national spending: $6,641,381
Takeaways: Rubio’s campaign headquarters is in Washington, D.C., where he spent $467,166 on salaries and $412,354 on direct mail services. He used two Virginia-based companies to conduct online fundraising services, for which he paid $905,502.
Of note: The campaign spent $6,157 on 353 Uber rides.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Des Moines: $48,688
2. Muscatine: $38,507
3. Washington: $36,805
4. West Des Moines: $13,975
5. Ankeny: $7,373
Takeaways: A large chunk of the money spent in Des Moines, $40,000, went to the Republican Party of Iowa for voter contact information.
Of note: The entire $36,805 the Rubio campaign spent in Washington, Iowa, was for stays at Marriott hotels. Alex Conant, a spokesman for the campaign, said that each of the campaign’s stays at Iowa Marriotts were billed to the same address. The campaign’s expenses at all of those Marriotts were for food and beverage ($239), lodging ($36,432), parking ($128) and printing ($5).
Rick Santorum, former U.S. senator from Pennsylvania
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Virginia: $236,990
2. Pennsylvania: $87,748
3. Maryland: $75,698
4. Texas: $73,531
5. North Carolina: $52,990
Where Iowa falls: No. 8 with $31,774 in spending
Total national spending: $772,284
Takeaways: Santorum used a number of consulting firms in his home state of Pennsylvania, paid for website development in Maryland and used a firm in Virginia for direct mail services.
Of note: The Santorum campaign so far has not logged any expenditures in New Hampshire, which follows Iowa with its first-in-the-nation primaries.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Cedar Falls: $12,068
2. Bettendorf: $6,280
3. West Des Moines: $6,125
4. Marshalltown: $3,249
5. Coralville: $1,919
Takeaways: The majority of Santorum’s Iowa expenses went to pay a campaign staffer and to rent his Iowa campaign headquarters in West Des Moines.
Of note: Santorum spent only $329.53 in Iowa’s capital city of Des Moines. It was for office supplies at Sam’s Club.
Donald Trump, businessman
Where he’s spending across the country
1. Florida: $1,540,337
2. Louisiana: $592,814
3. New York: $584,467
4. New Hampshire: $439,386
5. Iowa: $413,590
Total national spending: $5,654,623
Takeaways: Trump’s campaign spent more than $1.2 million on airfare through Tag Air Inc., an airline based in Florida, which Trump owns. Louisiana is home to Ace Specialties LLC, which distributes Trump’s “Make America Great Again” hats. That company was paid $592,814 for its services.
Of note: Many of the campaign’s expenditures are redirected back into Trump’s businesses. The campaign paid $262,682 to companies Trump owns in New York, including Trump Corp., Trump International Hotel and Tower, and Trump Restaurants LLC.
Where he’s spending in Iowa
1. Rockford: $127,456
2. Des Moines: $57,645
3. Larchwood: $48,609
4. Osceola: $27,709
5. Coralville: $27,195
Takeaways: Every expense in these cities, with the exception of Des Moines, went to pay salaries and travel expenses of campaign staffers. For example, the entire $127,456 spent in Rockford paid the salary and travel expenses of Trump’s Iowa strategist, Chuck Laudner, and to his wife Stephanie’s consulting firm, Strategy Resources.
Of note: In Iowa, Trump recorded $122,160 worth of expenditures related to “testing the waters” ahead of his actual candidacy. Nationally, he spent $1.49 million during that period, filings show. That’s about three times as much as former Florida Gov. Jeb Bush, who reported spending $516,870 to test the waters.
Register reporters Joel Aschbrenner, Kathy A. Bolten, Courtney Crowder, Kevin Hardy, Tony Leys, Timothy Meinch, Jason Noble, Kim Norvell, Matthew Patane, Mackenzie Ryan, Grant Rodgers, and William Petroski contributed to this article.
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