Saffron – valuable stigmas, or threads, are painstakingly plucked, piled, and dried.
flower
Saffron (pronounced /ˈsæfrən/ or /ˈsæfrɒn/)[1] is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Crocus is a genus in the family Iridaceae. Saffron crocus grows to 20–30 cm (8–12 in) and bears up to four flowers, each with three vivid crimson stigmas, which are the distal end of a carpel.[2] The styles and stigmas are collected and dried to be used as a seasoning and colouring agent in cooking. Saffron, long among the world’s most costly spices by weight,[3][4][5] is native to Greece orSouthwest Asia[6][4] and was first cultivated in Greece.[7] As a genetically monomorphic clone,[8] it was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from Crocus cartwrightianus, which originated in Crete;[8]C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible precursors.[9][10] The saffron crocus is a triploid that is “self-incompatible” and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual “divide-and-set” of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.[11][10] If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged via plant breeding, which would have selected for elongated stigmas, in late Bronze Age Crete.[12]
Saffron’s taste and iodoform- or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal.[13][14] It also contains a carotenoid pigment, crocin, which imparts a richgolden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal,[15] and it has been traded and used for over four millennia. Iran now accounts for approximately 90% of the world production of saffron.[16]
Saffron is obtained from dried style and stigma of reddish-orange flowers of a plant. Kesar or Saffron is the most expensive spice of world as stigmas of about 60, 000 hand collected flowers provide only half- kilograms of it. Saffron is used as coloring and flavoring ingredient in the preparation of various dishes. It is also used as traditional medicine for many diseases and in cosmetics. Saffron has a distinct aromatic odour and a bitter, pungent taste. Medicinally it is stimulant (stimulates levels of physiological or nervous activity), aphrodisiac, improves digestion and appetite. It increases blood flow in pelvic region on oral intake. Its over-doses is a narcotic poison. Saffron is always used in small doses. It is a popular remedy for promoting menstruation.
Saffron is the most expensive herb harvested from the stigma of the Crocus sativus flower. It is dark orange and thread like in appearance, with a spicy flavor, nice yellow to orange color and pungent odor.
The plant is grown in India, Spain, France, Italy, the Middle East, and the eastern Mediterranean region.
Over 200,000 crocus stigmas must be harvested to produce one pound of saffron.
Saffron is harvested by drying the orange stigma which are 3 of them in one Crocus sativus flower over fire.
This volume makes the herb extremely expensive and quite often adulterated.
Saffron is prescribed as a herbal remedy to stimulate the digestive system, ease colic and stomach discomfort, and minimize gas.
It is also used as an emmenagogue, to stimulate and promote menstrual flow in women.
Additional human studies have indicated that saffron has powerful antioxidant properties; that is, it helps to protect living tissues from free radicals and other harmful effects of oxidation.
Two chemical components of saffron extract, crocetin and crocin, reportedly improved memory and learning skills. These properties indicate that saffron extract may be a useful treatment for neurodegenerative disorders and related memory impairment.
In ancient India, robes were traditionally dyed a golden color from the crocin chemical dye that is found in saffron.
In fact, after Buddha had died, the Buddhist priests made this golden saffron color their official color of their robes.
Saffron was used by Greeks and Romans as a perfume on behalf of its pleasant aroma.
Cleopatra used to use saffron as a type of cosmetic. And now a days it is used in face creams as a fairness cream.
In the Middle Ages, one could be sentenced to the punishment of being buried alive if they tried to alter saffron by adding in other substances.
Romans used to take baths infused with saffron.
In order to cure hang-overs, Romans would sleep with expensive pillows that were stuffed with saffron.
Saffron is extensively used in Indian Cuisine and Middle Eastern Cuisine.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:Plantae
Division:Magnoliophyta
Class:Liliopsida
Order:Asparagales
Family:Iridaceae
Genus:Crocus
Species:C. sativus
Vernacular Names
SANSKRIT:Bhavarakta, Saurab, Mangalya, Kumkum ENGLISH:Saffron, Crocus PERSIAN:Zafrahn;Zipharana;GUJARATI:Keshar, Kesar KANNADA:Kunkuma, Kesari, MALAYALAM:Kunkuma Puvu MARATHI:Keshar PUNJABI:Kesar, Keshar TAMIL:Kungumapuvu TELUGU:Kunkuma Puvvu URDU:Zafran
Parts Used:Dried stigmas and tops of the styles of Crocus sativus flowers.
Habitat:Saffron is Cultivated in Kashmir, Kishtwar (Jammu) and in Nepal. Commercially, it is grown in Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and China.
Energetics:Pungent, bitter, Hot in potency
Plant description
Perennial tuber plant;Leaves radical, linear, dark green above, pale green below, enclosed in a membranous sheath;large Apurple or lilac colored flowers;Corolla in two segments, between which the long styles hang out;Stigmas three, large, nearly an inch long, rolled at the edges, bright orange bitter and warming taste.
Constituents of Saffron
Saffron contains three crystalline colouring matters ?-crocetin, ?-crocetin and ?-crocetin. It also contains essential oil a number of carotenoid pigments. The essential oil obtained from stigmas contains thirty-four or more components, viz. terpenes, terpene alcohols, and esters.
Medicinal Uses of Saffron
Saffron is used as condiment and colouring ingredient in several dishes. It is also used as a medicinal herb in fevers, enlargement of the liver, cough and asthma, anaemia, seminal debility rheumatism and neuralgia. Saffron is nervine tonic, sedative, antispasmodic expectorant, stomachic, diaphoretic and emmenagogue. In low doses Saffron stimulates gastric secretion and thus improves digestion. In large dose it increases flow of blood in pelvic region, stimulate uterine smooth muscles and can cause abortion.
Saffron oral use gives relief in respiratory ailments. In cough and cold a pinch of Saffron is taken with a glass of milk.
In painful urination and other urinary disorder the decoction of Saffron or infused tea should be taken.
In irritation in eyes, crushed saffron should be mixed with honey and this should be applied in eyes.
In looseness of bowels saffron is given children with ghee. It can also be given with half a teaspoon of lemon juice.
For pneumonia in kids, few threads of saffron are added to 10-15 ml juice of bitter gourd leaves and given twice a day.
Saffron is added to meals for regulating the menstrual cycle. It also gives relief in painful menstruation, PMS (premenstrual syndrome) and promotes fertility.
For sexual weakness, about 250 mg of saffron is taken with milk twice a day for one week.
Saffron improves digestion and appetite.
To get relief from dry cough one should drink one hot glass of milk added with turmeric, and few strands of saffron.
Saffron in paste form is applied topically for head-ache.
Its external application is also useful in sores, bruises and skin diseases. It is applied on face for improving complexion and treating hyper-pigmented spots.
It is also used for patchy loss of hair. For this purpose a paste of liquorice (mulethi) made by grinding the pieces in milk with a pinch of saffron is applied over the bald patches in the night before going to bed.
A famous Ayurvedic preparation containing Kesar or saffron is kumkumadi tailam. This medicated saffron/kumkum oil is applied on pimples marks, dark spots, dark circles, wrinkles etc.
The recommended doses of Saffron below one gram. Toxic dose is 1.5g–5 g.
Etymology
Further information: History of saffron
A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word, “saffron” although it can be traced to have stemmed immediately from 12th-century Old French term safran, which comes from the Latin word safranum. Safranum comes from the Persian intercessor زعفران, or za’ferân. Old Persian is the first language in which the use of saffron in cooking is recorded, with references dating back thousands of years.
Species
Main article: Crocus sativus
Description
Köhler’s Medicinal Plants:
corolla
stamens
corm
stigma
The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. Its progenitors are possibly the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus,[17][10] which is also known as “wild saffron”[18] and originated in Greece.[14] The saffron crocus probably resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources.[9][10]
It is a sterile triploid form, which means that three homologous sets of chromosomes compose each specimen’s genetic complement; C. sativus bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.[2] Being sterile, the purple flowers of C. sativus fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of corms, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten “cormlets” that can grow into new plants in the next season.[17] The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as 5 cm (2.0 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the “corm tunic”. Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm above the plant’s neck.[2]
C. sativus.
The plant grows to a height of 20–30 cm (8–12 in), and sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosynthetic leaves known ascataphylls. These membrane-like structures cover and protect the crocus’s 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3 mm in diameter, either expand after the flowers have opened (“hysteranthous”) or do so simultaneously with their blooming (“synanthous”).C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as pedicels.[2] After aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.[19] The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm (12 in) in height.[20] A three-pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma 25–30 mm (0.98–1.18 in) in length.[17]
Cultivation
Saffron bulbs for vegetative reproduction
Crocus sativus thrives in the Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype superficially resembling the North American chaparral, and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of snow cover.[17][21] Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000–1,500 mm (39–59 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,[22] and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. Nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot pose other threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.[23]
Saffron harvesting, Torbat-e Heydarieh, Iran
The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7–15 cm (2.8–5.9 in) deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.[2] Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm (5.9 in) deep and in rows 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) apart; depths of 8–10 cm (3.1–3.9 in) optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.
C. sativus prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareous soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–30 tonnes of manure per hectare. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.[24] After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.[25] All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.[26]Roughly 150 flowers together yield 1 g (0.035 oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g (0.42 oz) of dried saffron (or 72 g (2.5 oz) moist and freshly harvested), 1 kg (2.2 lb) of flowers are needed; 1 lb (0.45 kg) yields 0.2 oz (5.7 g) of dried saffron. One freshly picked flower yields an average 30 mg (0.0011 oz) of fresh saffron or 7 mg (0.00025 oz) dried.[24]
Spice
Chemistry
Structure of picrocrocin:[27]
β–D-glucopyranose derivative
safranal moiety
Picrocrocin is a monoterpene glycoside precursor of safranal. It is found in the spice saffron, which comes from the crocus flower.Picrocrocin has a bitter taste, and is the chemical most responsible for the taste of saffron.
During the drying process, picrocrocin liberates the aglycone (HTCC, C10H16O2) due to the action of the enzyme glucosidase. The aglycone is then transformed to safranal by dehydration. Picrocrocin is a degradation product of the carotenoidzeaxanthin.
Caballero-Ortega H, Pereda-Miranda R, Abdullaev FI (2007). “HPLC quantification of major active components from 11 different saffron (Crocus sativus L.) sources”. Food Chemistry 100 (3): 1126–1131. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.11.020.
Pfander, H.; Schurtenberger, H.; Biosynthesis of C20-carotenoids in Crocus sativus. Phytochemistry 1982, 21, 1039-1042. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)82412-7
Picrocrocin
CAS Registry Number: 138-55-6
CAS Name: (4R)-4-(b-D-Glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde
Additional Names: saffron-bitter
Molecular Formula: C16H26O7
Molecular Weight: 330.37
Percent Composition: C 58.17%, H 7.93%, O 33.90%
Literature References: From stigmas of Crocus sativus L., Iridaceae. Isoln: Kayser, Ber. 17, 2228 (1884). Structure: Kuhn, Winterstein, Ber. 67, 344 (1934). Exerts sex-determining influences in the plant organism: Kuhn, Angew. Chem. 53, 1 (1940). Its moieties are glucose and safranal, q.q.v. Abs config: Buchecker, Eugster, Helv. Chim. Acta 56, 1121 (1973). Synthesis: H. Mayer, J.-M. Santer, Helv. Chim. Acta 63, 1463 (1980).
Properties: Crystals, mp 154-156°. [a]D20 -58° (c = 0.6). Bitter taste. Alkali unstable. Sol in water, alcohol; slightly sol in chloroform, ether. Practically insol in petr ether, benzene.
Melting point: mp 154-156°
Optical Rotation: [a]D20 -58° (c = 0.6)
Picrocrocin
1H NMR spectrum
Predict NMR spectrum (requires installed Java plugin)
Predict NMR spectrum (requires HTML5 compatible browser)
13C NMR spectrum
Predict NMR spectrum (requires HTML5 compatible browser)
Picrocrocin
Names
IUPAC names
4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-
2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene-
1-carboxaldehyde
Identifiers
CAS number
138-55-6
ChemSpider
115678
InChI[show]
Jmol-3D images
Image (138-55-6)
PubChem
130796
SMILES[show]
Properties
Molecular formula
C16H26O7
Molar mass
330.37 g/mol
Density
1.31 g/mL
Melting point
154 to 156 °C (309 to 313 °F; 427 to 429 K)
Boiling point
520.4 °C (968.7 °F; 793.5 K)
Except where noted otherwise, data is given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C (77 °F), 100 kPa)
The chemical structure of the main bioactive compounds from the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L. – See more at: http://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/3/3/403/htm#sthash.iOWsNDGb.dpuf
Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,[28] many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes. However, saffron’s golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; it bears the systematic (IUPAC) name 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron’s aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.[28] Crocins themselves are a series ofhydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin.[28] Crocetin is a conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acidthat is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are sugars, a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron’s mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.[7]
Esterification reaction betweencrocetin and gentiobiose. Components of α–crocin:
β–D-gentiobiose
crocetin
The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron’s flavour. Picrocrocin (chemical formula:C
16H
26O
7; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoidzeaxanthin that is produced via oxidative cleavage, and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. The reddish-coloured zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the retina of the human eye.[29]
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield D–glucose and a free safranal molecule.[27] Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.[13][30] Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron’s volatile fraction in some samples.[29] A second element underlying saffron’s aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.[31] Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron’s fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.[31] Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light andoxidising agents. It must, therefore, be stored away in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
Grades and ISO 3632 categories[edit]
Red threads and yellow styles.
Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram, because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron from Iran, Spain and Kashmir is classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are: “sargol” (red stigma tips only, strongest grade), “pushal” or “pushali” (red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), “bunch” saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) and “konge” (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron are “coupé” (the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol), “mancha” (like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strength “rio”, “standard” and “sierra” saffron. The word “mancha” in the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron has PDO protected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as “Spanish Mancha saffron” were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand.
Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high grade saffron.
In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard ISO 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron’s colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.[32] However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.
Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content (“floral waste content”) and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material (“ash“) are also key. Grading standards are set by the International Organization for Standardization, a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice’s crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric absorbance. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20-50 for all categories.
These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the “colouring strength” of that saffron. Saffron’s colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world’s finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.
However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced wine tasters.[33] However, ISO 3632 grade and colouring strength information allow consumers to make instant comparisons between the quality of different saffron brands, without needing to purchase and sample the saffron. In particular, consumers can work out value for money based on price per unit of colouring strength rather than price per gram, given the wide possible range of colouring strengths that different kinds of saffron can have.
Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration, particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe’s Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code.[34] Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beets, pomegranate fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus’s tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil to increase their weight. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.[35][36]
Types
Saffron from different producer countries, picked and dried in different ways gives rise to different end qualities.
The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames “Spanish Superior” and “Creme”, are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. The most intense varieties tend to be Iranian. Various “boutique” crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its “earthy” notes—is marketed in small quantities.[37][38]
Consumers may regard certain cultivars as “premium” quality. The “Aquila” saffron, or zafferano dell’Aquila, is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy’s Abruzzo region, near L’Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the “Mongra” or “Lacha” saffron of Kashmir (Crocus sativus ‘Cashmirianus’), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in the Indian-controlled areas of Kashmir combine with an Indian export ban to contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its dark maroon-purple hue; it is among the world’s darkest, which hints at strong flavour, aroma, and colouring effect.
History
Main article: History of saffron
A detail from the “Saffron Gatherers” fresco of the “Xeste 3″ building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement ofAkrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini.
The documented history of saffron cultivation spans more than three millennia.[17] The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus wasCrocus cartwri