Comparative Religions
Week 4 June 9th – 15th
Buddhism
1. Differences and similarities between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism
Theravada and Mahayana are the two main branches of Buddhism. They are similar in several aspects such as both accept Sakyamuni as their teacher. The Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and the Dependent Origination in both schools are identical. Both forms accept the Annica, Dukka, Panna, Anntta and Sila but reject the idea of a supreme being who is thought to have created and also governed the world.
The two main divisions of Budhism differ in several ways. The differences are based certain aspects which can also be highlighted. The understanding of Buddha, Theravada accepts only the historical Gautama named Sakyamuni and past buddhas while Mahayana accept other contemporary buddhas like Medicine Buddha and the Amitabha. On the organization of the Buddhism scripture, Theravada has the Pali Canon with three baskets which are Vinaya, Sutta Pitaka and Abidhamma. In contrast, Mahayana has 12 divisions of various topics such as Cause, Conditions and Verses. About the Trikaya concept, the Theravada emphasis on the three Buddha bodies but on nirmana and dharma-kaya whiles it is highly emphasized in Mahayana.
The transmission route of the two types of Buddhism occurred differently. Theravada is a southern transmission, that is, through Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and other parts of Southeast Asia. For Mahayana, had a northern transmission which was through, Tibet, china, Taiwan, Japan, Mongolia and other parts of southern Asia. Theravada uses Pali in teaching Tipitaka while Dharma is taught in Pali supplemented with local language, while in Mahayana the Buddhist canon is in available local translations with the exception of five untranslatables. In Theravada, the sakyamuni Buddha’s disciples are basically historical disciples regardless of whether they are arahats or commoners. In contrast, the disciples in Mahayana involve the introduction of many bodhisattvas by Sakyamuni Buddha. A majority of these are not historical bodhisattvas.
Considering rituals and liturgy, a few are present but less emphasized in Theravada than in Mahayana where, because of influences by the local culture, the rituals are highly emphasized which may include rituals for the feeding of Petas and those of the deceased. The two regard dying and death aspects distinctively. In Theravada, there is minimal research on dying and death processes but it is noted that when a person is dying, meditation for impermanence, emptiness and suffering are encouraged. In contrast, there is a lot of research on dying and death processes is meticulously done by the Vijrayana School on Mahayana. The researchers suggest many signs manifested before the death of a person and that there is much stress experienced by the dying person as a result of the heavy task of transferring the person’s merit practices a few weeks before the death of the person to assist him in the next rebirth after the person’s death. Concerning worship in the temple, Sakyumuni Buddha is the central point of worship in Theravada in a simple layout of the temple while that of Mahayana is quite elaborate hall to accommodate Sakyamuni Buddha and two other of his disciples (Comparing Similarities and Differences, n.d).
2. Explain some of the key concepts in Buddhism such as: dharma, dukkha, Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, anicca, kamma, nirvana, sunyata, bodhisattvas, and the sangha.
The Concept of Dharma is made up of seven meanings which comprise of the transcendent reality, quality or property, the order or law of the universe, right behavior and religious practice, a truly real event, Buddha’s teaching and objective data of the mind. Dharma focuses on the ‘teaching” of Buddha and it is based on the good conduct of people in their general life but a specific requirement is to put into practice what Buddha’s teachings teaches about good conduct and having the ability to constitute Buddha’s path. It also encourages a realization of ‘truth” which arises from these practices of Buddhist path. The concept of dharma also refers to the fundamental mental or physical “thing” or “state’ which as described in plurality, for instance, in the scriptures of Abhidhamma, tends to be conceived as a “reality’ of the world in some sense. Whatever nature or quality anything posses may also be associated with dharma.
The Concept of dukkha is one of the three doctrines which form the ‘three marks” of existence which is translated, it means unsatisfactoriness. Its recognition of these essential characteristics together with two others by observing all things related to it is synonymous for the true nature of reality to penetrate.
The Concept of Four Noble Truths
The first Noble Truth is described as “suffering” which a literal translation of dukka in the Pali. In its Buddhist context, the term implies “unsatisfatoriness”. It also asserts that all things, from the trivial ones to the most sophisticated one are impermanent hence are passing away anytime and this includes all human beings as well. This means that there is no soul
The Concept of Eightfold Path
The Concept of anicca (pali) is one of three doctrines of constituting the ‘three marks” of existence. It also denotes the physical realm which refers to the constant changing of everything in nature as a result of the inevitable cause and effect operation. Therefore, the constant change characteristic of the sentient beings is responsible for the term annata. By following the eight fold path, one is able to overcome personal desires and hence eliminate suffering.
This path leads to attaining nirvana which is defined by several achievements. The path begins with having the right belief which enables one to ensure that the Four Noble Truths are recognized and understood. Next is having the right intention, a requirement that a disciple pursues a goal with single-mind set and this becomes the major aim. The right to speech requires one to choose one’s words with an aim of avoiding lying, uncharitable talk, gossip and idle chatter. A right action also forms part of the path which entails avoiding what is wrong according to the society of one origin and ability is to be motivated by leading a selfless life and works of charity.
The Noble Eight-fold Path is also about the right livelihood which is a strict instruction barring start of occupations which will be a source of harm to other people. It also follows that a right effort is vital to prevent and do away with evil desires and an effort to foster good impulses. In addition, a right mindfulness is fundamental for everyone since it requires a steady focus to one’s thoughts, feelings and most importantly actions (The noble eightfold path (2nd ed.), 1994).
The Concept of kamma
The concept of nirvana,
The concept is about a state of bliss which is a condition which puts someone to attain limits beyond what the mind can perceive or even feel. It arises from following the eight-fold path. Nirvana is the highest degree of deep meditation that that enables one to achieve God consciousness. The person who has reached nirvana is said to have broken free of samasra which is the reincarnation cycle as well as free of suffering which characterizes all forms of life on Earth. The individual’s life is no longer under the bondage of obsession and the biggest problem of man of earthly concerns. In addition to attaining elevated levels of compassion and wisdom, the person enjoys perfect peace state in the whole of his life. This is what is historically described as Buddha’s enlightenment hence for Buddhists; it takes a very long time to reach this highest state (Goonewardene, 1994).
4. Write about the importance of monasticism or meditation in Buddhist tradition.
Meditation is a mind transforming practice among the Buddhists which consists of techniques that are important in encouraging and enabling an individual to develop concentration, clarity, emotional positivity and staying calm so as to experience the true nature of the environment. The aim of the different practices is to learn one‘s patterns and possible habits of the mind, in addition to cultivating and nurturing new but positive ways of being. It is a taxing practice since regular work and patience are needed form. They are focused states of the sand which might deepen, eventually producing a profoundly into peaceful and energized states. The experience of the ordained can have transformative effect which is the main objective is to lead the meditating person to a new but better understanding.
In Thailand, meditation practice plays an important social role which greatly influences the psychological benefits which have been experienced by people and others they can possibly find as they practice meditation. Meditation is expected to create a new perception, one that is agreeable to the ethical principles of a Buddhist. The technique assists the mediator to interact with the internal as well as external sensory phenomena in different specific ways. Meditation is a vital practice in Buddhism although statistics show that it has developed different variations between different traditions existing among the Buddhist communities (Gross and Muck, 2003).
The entire daily schedule, the bureaucratic organization, spatial layout and social interaction characteristic of the monastery are centered on meditation. Regarded as life’s central act, meditation becomes an important means by which one gets to know more about oneself. Hence, it is very important to meditate at all. It is expected that the mindfulness be cultivated through practicing meditation as a formal activity which then should develop into a continuous state of mind such as waking and sleeping. Meditation is so powerful that it is able to avoid being attached to the world and worldly things.
There are two types of meditation. Tranquility meditation (samatha) helps those who are meditating to have a still mind so that it can concentrate. This is to enable the mind to achieve its goal of progressing through the stages dhyanas. The stages are, first, lack of involvement in the external world so as to have joy and tranquility. Second stage, this meditation enables the Buddhists to concentrate in meditation by suppression any reasoning and investigation which can contribute to better decisions. Third stage is loss of joy but tranquility remains. Fourth and last, tranquility passes away which results in pure possession. The other type of meditation is Insight Meditation (Vipassana) which helps the one meditating to experience the truths of suffering, impermanence and the concept of “no-self”.
Monastic promote a way of life committed to wisdom and to show compassion notwithstanding the world full of suffering, materialism, choking with anger and war. The monastic life, according to Buddha, gives a meaningful way of living which is difficult for countless men and women to achieve. By shunning worldly responsibilities, people are able to grow quickly in their spiritual life since the spiritual path will have minimum distractions. The success of the monastic life is partly attributed to the vows they solemnly to remain celibate and at the same time maintain a high level of simplicity. Monasticism is also important since many monastic most often participate in voluntary social work, Drama, teaching and basic skills if they are found in poor communities (Thomas, et al, 2000).
References
Comparing Similarities and Differences between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism – Buddha Station – A Buddhism Tube Site (n.d.). Buddha Station – A Buddhism Tube Site – Explore Buddhism by video, tube and articles. Buddha Station.. Retrieved July 1, 2013, from http://www.buddhastation.com/buddhism-articles/comparing-similarities-and-differences-between-theravada-and-mahayana-buddhism/
Goonewardene, A. (1994). Buddhist scriptures. Oxford: Heinemann
Gross, R. M., & Muck, T. C. (2003). Christians talk about Buddhist meditation, Buddhists talk about Christian prayer. New York: Continuum.
The noble eightfold path: way to the end of suffering (2nd ed.). (1994). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.
Thomas, J. P., Hero, A. C., & Constable, G. (2000). Byzantine monastic foundation documents: a complete translation of the surviving founders’ typika and testaments. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.
WEEK 5
1. Compare and contrast elements of Taoism with Confucianism. Be sure to include some of the following key concepts: yin & yang, chi, de (te), wu wei, harmony, relationships, filial piety, jen (ren), shu, li, hsueh.
Similarities
Taoism and Confucianism are both schools of philosophy that originate from the Chinese culture; both schools are influenced by the environment and nature, aristocrats were taught on how to live and work together with nature. Taoist and Confucians believe that a morally up right person should be self-cultivated, have humane virtues, respect the cultural rituals and adhere to the societal values that have been laid down back from the days of the ancient sage kings. A good person according to the two schools was also not supposed to cause chaos or disrupt peace among other people.
Both schools believed in several spirits that represented different forces of nature. For instance they believed in Yang who they referred to as the sunny side of mountain and Yin his couple who represented darkness. There was also Li who required people to behave in good manners in all situations and to the king. The spirit also required people to adhere to the king and respect the traditional rituals. Another cult was the Shu it was the expectations of one to do good to others the same way he or she would expect them to do to him or her. There was also Wu Wei that meant being quiet and avoid causing conflicts and that people should turn away from actions that were not natural, they also believed in Te that expected believer to live a simple spiritual life. Both believed that people should get closer to nature rather than civilization. Toa and Confucius were not creators. Both Confucianism and Taoism never taught about gods, their major concerns were nature and good relationships between people (Jones, 2011).
Differences
Taoism was introduced by Lao Tzu who was conceived by a wise mother who was a librarian at Zho dynasty while gazing at shooting stars on the other hand Confucianism, was founded by Confucius (Kngfu Zi). He was born in the time of political danger and fragmentation where he escaped death narrowly thus this boosted his spiritual life. Confucianism believed in education for organizing and shaping the society while Taoism did not rely much on education but on nature. Another difference between the two was that Taoism was engaged more on cosmic nature that is things like mountains, lakes, plants and others while Confucianism believed much in human nature.
The Taoist literature is brilliant, poetic, imaginary, full of paradox and contradicting while Confucianism’s literature was industrious and literal. Confucianism believes that each thing in nature is joined in line to the preceding thing hence people can change positively at any point within the chain while Taoism argue that everything is what it is in connection to another one. Taoism believes that a person should live in harmony with nature and be solitude; they do not rely much on relationships. They argue that people should do thing their own way to avoid conflicts and chaos, they expected people to dream in what existed in nature and realities. In contrary Confucianism anticipated that people should live in good relationships with others, they stressed on five major relationships that is father to son relationship, elder brother – brother relationship, husband – wife relationship, elder friend – younger relation and finally ruler – subject relation (Ruokanen & Huang, 2010).
6. Discuss Jainism along with its ideologies, scriptures and practices. Compare it to the Hindu culture from which it evolves. How is Jainism similar and dissimilar to Buddhism?
Ideologies
Jainism is an ancient traditional religion of the Jinas. It began in the 16th century in India and it was introduced by Mahavira. Its main ideology is the jiva which means, (The liberation of the self). They believe that the planet contains layers of heavens and hells and for one to pass through these strata he or she has to believe and adhere to the Jainism religion that emphasizes a disciplined and peaceful way of life. This people also believe in the ideology that a person must make boundaries between what is good and what is wrong, between self and non – self, between truth and falsehood, proper reasoning and nonsense and between surface and depth.
In Jainism ideologies are meant to establish good conduct among people. Ideologies also have to adhere to the societies cultural believes. Some of ideologies are; every living thing has a soul, every soul is eternally inherent though distinctively unrealized, every soul is the designer of its own life, now or after life, another ideology is that after a soul is freed from accumulated past actions, it is set free and cult-conscious. There is no mighty being, no celestial creator, owner, protector or wrecker, the earth is self-controlled and every soul has the power to reach the state of god-consciousness through self-efforts, one has to limit ownerships and live a pure life that is of use to one’s self and others; ownership does not mean possessing an object but if attached to it is what is known as possessiveness. (Religion of India-Jainism- Ideologies of Jainism, n.d)
Scriptures
Jainism scriptures involved the Agamas which were based on Mahavira’s teachings which were compiled by the word of mouth by the followers into different texts (Sutras0. These Sutras were all together known as Jain canonicals or Agamic literature. The Agamas contains forty five texts written in various languages including; Pakrit, Sanscrit, umaswati, Tamil, Hindustani, Kannada and Gujarati.
Practices
Jains practiced alongside other cultural practices. Monks and nuns had to abide by the following vows; no violence (ahimsa), truth (satya), no stealing (asteya), abstention (brahmachamnga) and non-possessiveness (aparigraha). Other practices include no eating in darkness or in front of a novice, monks are expected to be homeless, they are served on their hands to symbolize detachment from material possession. They worship in public places such as temples and wooden shrines. There meditation involved chanting of mantras which represent a sector of Jain worship and ritual.
Comparison between Jainism and Hinduism
Both religions believed in Karma where Jainism terms it as an invisible power while Hinduism believed that Karma sticks to the soul. They both believed that there will be liberation of the soul where Jainism accepted that there will be eternal life in heaven or the soul will join Brahman while Hinduism liberation in the loka(universe) hence both agree that there will be life after death. Both religions believe in the doctrine of Ahimsa (non-violence) and also they do not agree to the concept of a creator. (On Jainism: How does Jainism fit in Hinduism, n.d).
Similarities between Jainism and Buddhism
Both religions are branches of Shramana tradition that exists up to date; they both share many aspects and terminologies. These two are composed of four sectors in their organization. Both the Gautam of Buddha and Mahavira of Jain belong to princely families, they also don’t accept the existence of God and also reject the rule of Vedas and engagement in sacrifices and rituals. All of them are in agree with the theories of Karma, rebirth and Moksha, they both taught in Prakrit which was a common language and not in the Sanskrit which was a language of the priests. They all denied animal sacrifices and used followers from both sexes
Buddhism became divided into Mahayana and Hinayana while Jainism was divided into Svetambara and Digambara. Each one of them had three main sects (Tripataka), that is, Vinaypitak, Suttapitaka and Abidhamma pitak for Buddha and Anga, Upanga and Mulgrajitha for Jain (Religion of India-Jainism- Ideologies of Jainism, n.d.).
Differences
Buddhism argued that a person can attains Moksha while living on earth so long as the person adjourns desires while Jain believed that Monksha was freedom from all sorts of problems and only gotten after one dies. Although they both stress the principle of Ahimsa, it is more emphasized in Jainism. Another contradiction is that Buddhism does not account in the existence of souls but Jainism believes that there is a soul in every living being. Jainism is depicted to be closer to Hinduism whereas Buddhism inherited the policy of keeping away from it. The Buddhists were royally supported and back up by the kings but the Jainism was never got any support or endorsement from the kings. Another contradiction is that Buddhism flourished to other countries across Asia while Jainism never spread out of India (On Jainism: How does Jainism fit in Hinduism? n.d.).
8. Trace the evolution of the revival of Shinto in the modern period (19th and 20th centuries).
The Evolution of the Shinto in the Modern Period
Shinto is the Japanese indigenous way of worship it means, Kam-no-Michi(the way of Gods). It is a collection of beliefs and traditional practices. The traditions have been affected by the arrival of the Buddhism. They belief that nature is identical with divinity, gods of varying might. Shinto contains myths of the origin of Japan and its people together with there traditional practices and rituals.
Political leaders in Japan recognized the Shinto religion rating it to be the origin of the people’s good morals. They declared it to be a national religion while they abandoned Buddhism. Kam-no-Michi priests were awarded official posts as Buddhists were advised to turn into the ‘right kind of life,’ there temples and images were destroyed. Later Kyobusho was established thus led to both Shinto and Buddhists priests to be treated equally. The Shinto revival fall and Buddhism remained silent until Christianity accelerated it into a rejuvenated activity.
Three forms of the Shinto existed during the nineteenth century that is, domestic Shinto where households build a shelf for offerings to recall the spirits of ancestors and more so local spirits. The second Kam-no-Michi was the sectarian Shinto and as time went by, mountain climbing emerged where they climbed mountains to give tribute to the spirit of the mountain Shinto were purification and healing. Around 1930 the Japanese government saw the need for religions to be registered and 13 Shinto sectarians recognized. In the 19th and the 20th century, the Emperor announced control over traditional cloisters hence led to the emergence of the Shito. Although Shinto was declared a religion, some Buddhism believers did not agree with the idea so they formed a movement known as “Imperial Way Buddhism. This movement argued that Buddhism was superior to all other religions and identified it with the nation and the nation with emperor hence worshiping the monarch was the same as honoring the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha the Buddhism gods.
In 1938 an association recognized as Gohonzon as the Japanese king but the Shinto opposed by stimulating Article one of Japan’s constitution which stated that the emperor of Japan was not superior he was to be governed by a series of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal and article three which stated that the king was sacred and deserved respect, they were the teachers of law in Japan. The emperor used the religion to vanquish the military regime; the government fully supported the religion by the construction of sacred places for worshiping in 1920s. The religion was pronounced to be a national religion and the main aim was to unite the Japanese people and promote the faith of the divine monarch. The State Shinto stressed on the differences and the special afterlife of Japan and its occupants, it also stressed on the divine origin of he imperial unity together with the duty of every Japanese dovotionto the monarch.
The Kam-no-Michi succeeded as a national faith up to 1945 when Japan was concurred in the Second World War and the monarch’s denial of his divinity declined the state Shinto. Although after the war most Shinto believers worshiped Shinto in their homes and not in shrines like before, most government sponsored shrines were collectively joined into the Association of Shinto Shrines after 1946. Up to date sect Shinto has more than eight private religious sectarians which undertake their services worship houses or lecture halls and not in traditional sacred places (State Shinto. n.d.)
References
Jones, M. (2011). History of Criminal Justice (5th ed.). Burlington: Elsevier Science.
On Jainism: How does Jainism fit in Hinduism?. (n.d.). On Jainism. Retrieved July 2, 2013, from http://jainism.blogspot.com/2004/09/how-does-jainism-fit-in-hinduism.html. On Jainism. Retrieved July 2, 2013, from http://jainism.blogspot.com/2004/09/how-does-jainism-fit-in-hinduism.html
Religion of India-Jainism- Ideologies of Jainism . (n.d.). Astrology | Indian Astrology | Horoscopes | Horoscope | Zodiac Signs. Retrieved July 1, 2013, from http://www.mywebastrologer.com/Jainism_Ideologies.asp
Ruokanen, M., & Huang, P. Z. (2010). Christianity and Chinese culture. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.
State Shinto. (n.d.). globalsecurity. Retrieved June 30, 2013, from www.balsecurity.org/military/world/japan/shinto-3.htmhttp://
Week 6 June 23rd – 29th
1. At what point can Jewish myths from the scriptural tradition be separated from Jewish history?
The Jewish history was written in the bible although it was formerly known to be a book of commandments hence shaped the past of the Jewish people and their past. Throughout ninetieth the history of the Jews could be told and retold with nobody doubting that the stories were not legends or myths. However, there was a small click of radical thinkers who questioned the reliability of the biblical stories in general. It was difficult to believe in the theophany if one had not accepted the reliability of the story of the exodus from Egypt.
Voltaire (1694-1778) was the first person to publish a universal history that challenged the chronology of the Bible and instead thought of Egypt and China to be more important than the history of the Jews. Wellhausen led in the biblical criticism in the nineteenth century, a time when heresy was widespread. For instance, he argues that the sources discovered in Mesopotamia which indicated that the Babylonian culture mainly practiced pagan polytheistic culture and that the Jews perceived it to be an abomination was merely a Mesopotamian cosmogonic myth. Another writer, Schorr, of the ninetieth century claimed that some parts of the book of Genesis are based on myths. The celebration of the Christmas as the date Jesus Christ was born and the celebration of Easter were also identified to be myths in the ninetieth century (Shavit & Eran, 2007).
The history of the birth of Jesus is begins right from Genesis. In the Old Testament, there are several prophesies about the birth of Jesus. The Israelites had been waiting anxiously for the coming Messiah and it is possible they made several predictions of the date he was to be born. However, none of the prophecies identified the actual date in which Jesus was to be born. After his birth, life, death and ascension, many years passed until 354 AD when the Roman Emperor Aurerian, who was a pagan established December 25, to be the festival in celebration of the birth of the invisible sun. Philocalus wrote a Christian myrtyrology in 354 AD in which he dated the birth of Jesus Christ to be on December 25. This tells us that the celebration of Christmas was has been in place from as early as AD 335. There is a possibility that the setting up of Christmas on the December 25 was either done to supplant the Roman pagan or rather than a mere coincidence. There is no evidence to show that the world celebrated Christmas at any day, before AD 350, not even the December 25.
The celebration of Easter
Hippolytus and Tertullian came up with a formula to identifying the date of Easter and for that matter picked March 25. It seems that March 25 was considered to be date of Jesus Christ was conceived hence December 25 was then determined from March 25 (Origin of Jewish/Christian holy days, n.d).
Why is the scriptural tradition so important and why do you think it has been so enduring
The sculptural tradition is found in all religions although the Catholic Church seems to undervalue the sacred scriptures hence have been through history been thought to endeavor to reduce the credit accorded or worthy the Holy Scriptures. The Catholic Church The scriptural tradition refers to the manner of use and attitude accorded to the scriptures. The Catholic Church is very conservative with her style of using the scriptures and it is claimed that there is no one or no religion can reverence and have greater respect for the scriptures than the Catholics. Many of devout ones are said to have a profound veneration of for it to an extent of kneeling down when kneeling down. For this reason, the Catholics tend to remain intact for it easily keeps its doctrines. In contrast, the Protestants handle the scriptures casually and therefore unable to adequately live by what it teaches (Errata to the Protestant Bible, n.d.).
The Islamic scripture contains a wide range of concepts which portray a great sense of unit. The basic scripture of Islam is the Qur’an. All the texts are regarded to be authoritative. These concepts include knowledge, values, world view and mode of behavior in the proximity of the scriptures and the Spirit of those particular scriptures. The Islamic scriptures occur in a range and vary in degrees of authority. The scriptures of Islam, just as any other scripture since it teaches on respect for heritage as well as respecting cultural heritage.
6. What are some of the most important factors concerning the ancient origin of Zoroastrianism?
Zoroastrianism religion was founded by Prophet Zoroaster in the ancient Persia. The religion is defined by doctrines preached by the prophet which also constitute the sacred scripture referred to as the Avestra. These have been preserved his own psalms better known as the metrical Gathas. It was a monotheistic worship of Ahura Mazda although the Ahura Mazda had two emanations.
The Zoroastrianism can be traced back to the 6th century BC when the Iranian prophet Zarathustra is believed to have lived and taught. His name has now come to be known by a Greek name as Zoroaster. The teaching of Zoroaster is believed to be a replacement of the several ahuras which are the gods worshipped by the traditional Indo-Iranian rligion with only one ahura Ahura Mazda, who is the “Wise Lord” or supreme God . The religion of Zoroastrianism was founded by Ahura Mazda from his own discourses referred to as Gathas which which form the opening parts of the holy book of Zoroastrianism, the Avestra. Ahura Mazda created two sons who were twin spirits whereby one known as Spenta Mainyu chose to pursue good under the concepts of life, truth and light. He is assisted by six entities, Good Mind, Truth, Health, Life, Power, and Devotion. The emanations of the Supreme Lord are Angra Mainyu whose assisting entities are deceit, darkness and death.
The freedom given to the two spiritual sons or emanations of Ahura Mazda seems to be reflected in other common religions which challenge that human beings have the freedom to choose good or evil. The teachings focus on a person’s destiny after death when everyone‘s soul will appear before the Bridge of Discrimination to be judged. Now, those who would have followed the emanation of Truth will be allowed to cross over and enter into paradise but those who would have chosen Lie will go to hell. This is the significance of the two “sons” of Ahura Mazda (Zoroastrianism, n.d.).
The development of religion continued well until when its founder, Spenta Mainyu dies and the father takes over from him to start a plan of thwarting Angra Mainyu. The struggle between this two forces are still reflected upon all through the history of the Zoroastrian belief and until now the Zoroaster keeps only one of the two previously performed sacrifices which sacrifice by fire. The struggle mainly involved good and evil truth and deceit and light and darkness. The Indo-Iranian sacrifice by fire became the symbol of truth. The religion eventually spread through Iran in a way that is barely understood that it characterized the Achaemenid dynasty.
The Magi, which was a priestly sect later combined with the Zorastrians leading to adjustments that transformed the Iranian religion. The Persian Magi, which came to visit Jesus, when Persia was ruled by the Parthians, were Zoroastrians. Their religion had survived the Greece domination in their land since the Greek were tolerant to other religions. The rise of Sassanians after Parthians under the founding leadership of Ardashir saw the formation of strong links between the dynasty and the Zoroastrianism. Aldashir takes the throne of Achaemeneds and restores the cult of AhuraMazda to be the state religion. Currently, there is a ritual hierarchy across this dynasty with each of the major districts being assigned a chief priest and the whole empire with a under the power of the supreme priest (History of Zoroastrianism, n.d.).
7. Discuss some of the Zoroastrian influences upon Judaism and Christianity.
Zoroastrian is very closely related to Judaism and Christianity which implies a connection between them. It is evident that Zoroastrian influences the two religions in many a number of ways although the details are a bit difficult to document especially at the early stages of Judaism development. The manner of influence focused on here is based on circumstantial hence may not necessarily appeal to a rigorous scholarly judgment but since there is sufficient evidence, it worthy for consideration. The only danger lies on the failure to prove them either as true or false.
The first contact of the between the Zoroastrian and Judaism was after the exile in Babylon when Persia conquered Babylon and allowed the Jews to go back to their homeland. There deemed to be a much prolonged contact between the two so that led the Jews to copy a lot of ways from the Zoroastrians. In order to identify some of these ways, it is important to identify some of the common elements that characterized the Zoroastrian tradition. It was the main religion of the Persian Empire which was based on the Zoroastrian scriptures such as the Gathas which made the founding text of the Zoroastrian faith and the Yashts which was hymns of praise. The people who practiced Zoroastrianism based their faith on oral tradition meaning that the faith was only taught and transmitted through the word of mouth and not at all on written scriptures. The Zoroastrian symbolism of fire, stories and scriptures describing the Prophet Zarathushtra intermediate spiritual beings or yazatas as well as light and darkness formed the elements of the (Zoroastrian, Judaism and Christianity, n.d.).
The idea of Heaven, Hell and life after (afterlife) emerged after the exile and it thought by a number of scholars to have originated from the interaction between the Jews and the Zoroastrians of Persia. After the death of a person, his soul went to “Sheol” which is a dull place similar to hades. That is what the Jews believed before they went to exile. In their new believe, the good people get heavenly rewards while the evil people get a hellish punishment. Most Christians believe in a moralized afterlife where there will be eternal life for those that will have repented their sins and lived righteous when Jesus will come back to the Earth. Related in meaning to heaven is the term Paradise which originates from the ancient Iranian “pairi-daeza” words which means “enclosed garden” which are few Persian words in the Bible. The meaning of Therefore, the idea of two destinies of man, heaven or hell depending on how they live on earth originated from the Zoroastrian religion.
Both Jews and Christians believe in the coming Messiah and this idea is thought to have originated from the Zoroastrian messianic teachings. This is depicted in the book of Second Isaiah in which the Jews are promised a Savior who would rescue the people according to the word of the Lord through his prophet. The savior in the context and the interpretation of the Jewish people refers to anyone who would cause a better life for Jews. Also, in the Second Maccabees, a book not found among the Jews but only in the Catholic Church, contains an account of the Zoroastrian contact with the Jews. It shows the restoration of Jewish altar fire. The writers of the 2 Macabees were informed of the reverence fire.
References
Full text of “Errata to the Protestant Bible (n.d.). Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free Books, Movies, Music & Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 8, 2013, from http://archive.org/stream/erratatotheprote00warduoft/erratatotheprote00warduoft_djvu.txt
History of Zoroastrianism (n.d.). HistoryWorld – History and Timelines. Retrieved July 4, 2013, from http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab71
Shavit, J., & Eran, M. (2007). The Hebrew Bible reborn from Holy Scripture to the Book of Books : a history of biblical culture and the battles over the Bible in modern Judaism. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Christianity. (n.d.). Pyracantha Studios. Retrieved July 4, 2013, from http://www.pyracantha.com/Z/zjc3.html
Zoroastrianism. (n.d.). Queensborough Community College. Retrieved July 4, 2013, from http://www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialSciences/ppecorino/PHIL_of_RELIGION_TEXT/CHAPTER_2_RELIGIONS/Zoroastrianism.htm
Week 7 June 30th – July 6th
1. What can we know factually about the historical Jesus?
It is difficult to historically paint a global picture of Jesus since different societies have varied interpretations of who he was and the role he played in the world. According to Christians, Jesus fulfills prophesy about the Messiah who was for a long time according to the Old Testament prophesies expected to be a historical but not a mythical world savior sent from God. Jesus was a kind, sinless man who came from God. He is said to be a son of God since God referred to him as the son of God. He came to earth to do the will of God his father to fight evil and death and the victory of this was illustrated by his own victory over his death culminating to resurrection. The resurrection was to be a fundamental phenomenon upon which God was to build a church. The kind of energy emanating from God to Jesus and later the man was that which is needed to begin a world religion.
Stories of the ancient world present Jesus as a Hero regardless of the doctrine from which they got to know about him. He was perceived in so many ways by both his followers as well as his haters. For instance, some thought of him as a prophet, a great teacher, a politician, a physician, the son of God or a messiah.
Some historians both in the church and atheists think of Jesus as a real man born in the small town of Bethlehem to Joseph the carpenter among other siblings. The historians cannot find any eye witnesses or their accounts about Jesus lifetime so all the information they need about Jesus is derived from the Gospel books which were also written several years after Jesus was born (Gregory Riley: Jesus the Hellenistic Hero, n.d.).
What are the limitations placed upon our knowledge?
Most of the critics of who Jesus was or rather his biography normally provide very scanty information which they fill large volumes of books. The limited biographical information has not been sufficient for many to base their faith in. Primitive Christianity has done many things or has been tempted to expand the little knowledge through adoption of various myths. The major source of the limitations is mainly on the nature of sources that provide information about Jesus (Becker, 1998).
How can historical and critical study aid us in a more complete understanding of the Jesus tradition?
First, we must not blame it on ourselves of missing the historical sources to give us adequate biographical information. To better understand Jesus tradition, we need to critically study the New Testament and reflect it upon the Old Testament. We have to distinguish the meanings of Jesus as a figure presented historically and Christ of faith and how to combine the two personalities into one person. Whether the setting of Jesus tradition is in history or on faith, the basis of approaching Jesus is still by faith as the foundation which is mysteriously confirmed by historical accounts (Houlden, 2005).
Do you think it is possible that Christ was not a real person?
It is not possible because of a number of reasons. The Old Testament prophecies especially that of Isaiah chapter 50-55, narrates how Jesus was to be born of a virgin. There are many illustrations that prove that a savior in Israel was to come to deliver the Israel from their enemies. The history of the killing of the male children by the Romans is the history books far a different line of study altogether. After his birth, the wise men come to visit him from the East. It is recorded in history of the tolerance to other religions of the Magi from Persia and Greeks which dominated them.
If there are things about his life that are not historically true is the Jesus narrative that has been handed down to us enough?
The Jesus narrative will be enough. It is difficult to find any source of information which does not have critics who either present the story as being incorrect and then this is passed down the generation. What are needed are a few facts or true history to work with for this is better than a whole lot of lies. Even I have only one fact about Jesus that quite unique to the contemporary world, I would hang on that. The ascension story is criticized by many but his bones cannot be traced. I believe if historical records prove such rare claims, I would not mind if all other stories are not historically.
2. Address the diversity within the Jewish community of the 1st century.
The birth of Jesus and the consequent birth of Christianity took place at a time when the Jews had lost the unity that had characterized the chosen nation for several centuries or even millennia. In this first century the Jews had become fragmented and beleaguered in this country currently known as Palestine. A diversity of views within the Jewish community is emphasized very much by all the histories of the captured in the Palestinian Jewry of the first century. The reason for diversity is mainly due to key issues that are separated the Jews along the teachings of Jesus.
Paul was one of the Diaspora Jew was one of the few Jews that were attracted to Jesus teachings. He had a role of inviting and attracting non-Jews to the new movement of Christianity, an issue that vexed the Jews greatly and thus causing divisions whether these gentiles should be allowed to share the teaching of Jesus with the Jews. There soon emerged a gentile Christianity which obviously became inconsistent with the biblical Israel. The main issues that cause fragmentation s among the Jewish community are found in the gospels. The Jews knew the kind of Christianity they expected from the Gospels but had become witnesses of later modifications that was done on the Christian thinking to make a new influential version of Christianity (Chazan, 2004).
Write something about the social, religious and political groups
Zealots are among the “revolutionary” groups that had mounted resistance to the occupation of the Romans in the land of Israel during the first century. They comprised of any Jew who were zealous to keep Go’s law and hence the zealots were not a specific organized group. They were identified as a nationalistic revolutionary party just before and after the Jews waged war against the Romans. Simon Peter, one of Jesus disciple was known as “Simon the Zealot”
Essenes were a small sect that led a communal “monastic” lifestyle near the Dead Sea at a place known as Qumram from the beginning of 2nd century BCE to all through the 1st century. They were originally thought to be a group of priests established by a “teacher of righteousness” but later rejected the validity of the temple worship. They therefore neither attended the festivals nor supported the temple services. There hope was that God was going to send a mighty prophet accompanied by two Messiahs, one of which was to be a king and a priest.
Pharisees,
The Pharisees comprised of very influential Jews whose teachings advocated the strict observance of the Sabbath rest, rituals tithing, purity, and a lot of eating and restrictions on food. They observed the laws so strictly. They were the political opponents of the Sadducees who sought to influence rulers and people. Some were priests, scribes or rabbis and sometimes laymen. They were always seeking faults of Jesus to as to accuse him of various issues they believed were against the laws of GOD.
Sadducees were also a prominent group in Palestine whose life and activity is recorded between 2nd century BCE and 1st century CE. Although a smaller group compared to the Pharisees, they were more influential. They were the main political and religious rivals of the Pharisees and the Herodias and this was boosted by a wealthy class of people who were rulers at the time. They were respectful of the Jerusalrm temple and the ruling council. They are also portrayed as enemies of Jesus by the Gospels.
Herodians are given the name probably supported the Herodian family’s policies and therefore government. They are known to have conspired with Pharisees to kill Jesus at his infancy and later they wanted to trap Jesus with questions of tax.
Scribes were trained in writing that had the responsibilities of interpreting and teaching law and hence could be lawyers by extension. They were also used as the agents of rulers. They never formed any organization but they were supporters of other readily formed organizations or parties. They were enemies of Jesus and sought to have him put to death. In addition, they sought to seek the lives of the early Christian church. Some of the scribes were however good and were praised by Jesus.
Priests were men chosen from the house of Levi. They took full charge of the temple activities such as sacrifices. They were both religious and social leaders among the Jewish people. Their role was mainly to conduct various cultic/ ritual practices of the temple which included ofrring sacrifices. The High priest was appointed annually although reappointments of members of the Annas and Caiphas families were observed in the first century. The chief priests were opposed to Jesus since they were members of the ruling authorities which were challenged by his teachings.
John the Baptist’s Group are the disciples of John the Baptist became Christians. They ended up forming an effective ministry that worked had to preach and spread the gospel so that those who believed were baptized for the remission of their sins. These disciples who were present during his lifetime persisted even after his death (Jewish Groups in New Testament Times, n.d.).
3. Why do you think scholars have often suggested that St. Paul does more to influence the direction and theology of Christianity than Christ himself?
Paul went among all forks to spread the gospel of Jesus. His conversion was an incredible story in Paul’s life as well as all the Jews and gentiles who had witnessed his persecution of Christians. For better or for worse and undaunted, Paul did the most to spread the gospel of Jesus Christ. He was the first person, even before Jesus Christ, to cross the borders to reach out to the gentiles hence becoming a great Christian missionary to this group of discriminated people with regards to the plan of salvation. He travelled wider in different cities than Jesus did without fear of death. Jesus had to seek refuge from the indignation of those who sought to kill him before his time to die for the sins of man kind before he completed his earthly ministry. Paul was also filled with the Holy Spirit which urged him to all the places he went. The suffering that Paul was subjected to was incomparable (Tracing the Steps of the Apostle Paul - Truth in History, n.d.).
Who is Paul’s ministry aimed at?
The main target of Paul’s ministry is the gentiles, a group that had not been mentioned from the plan of salvation launched by God to his chosen race, the Israelites or the Jews. He was also referred to as the Apostle of the Gentiles. Paul was perceived as the most brilliant preacher and personality to take the gospel of Jesus Christ to other lands such as the Cyprus, Asia Minor (the contemporary Turkey), Mainland Greece, Crete and Rome. His main task was also to send a message to the Jews that torah was not necessary for their salvation (St Paul Biography,n.d).
How and why did he write these Epistles?
There are thirteen epistles which can be accredited to Paul in the New Testament. The church was expanding very fast through so many ministries which were being opened as a result of Paul‘s preaching. Soon it became difficult for Paul to continue preaching to other new places and at the same time respond to the main challenges which were emerging in the already opened churches. Paul, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit was able to write several letters, otherwise known as epistles to this church. Some of the epistles were meant to encourage the Christians to continue fellowshipping together in faith.
What were the early communities that Paul addressed in his letters like?
Some of letters, especially the letters to the churches in Corinth, Antioch, Laodicea, Corinth, Thessalonians, Galatians, Philippians among others have a message specific to each of them according to their needs. The message to these groups was an elaborate explanation of the gospel they ere expected to hold firm to and how to resolve some of the disputes that arose among the believers.
How does Paul’s Roman citizenship aid in his spread of the faith?
Being a roman citizen, he showed a great understanding of the Greco-Roman rhetoric as well as literature. For example, Paul is able to refer to some of the Gentile poems and plays in many occasions such as in Aeropagus in Acts 17 and in verse 28 Paul quoted the poem Cretica. This is some of the tactics he used to create a good relationship with the crowd and pass and emphasize his message to the masses in the language they understood best. He was however careful to uphold his Jewish foundation and therefore he never allowed the culture and influences of the Roman culture interfere or dilute the message which he wanted to pass (Paul: A Citizen of Two Cities | Reading Acts, n.d.).
References
Chazan, R. (2004) Fashioning Jewish Identity in Medieval Western Christendom: New York. Cambridge University Press
Becker, J. (1998). Jesus of Nazareth. New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Gregory Riley: Jesus the Hellenistic Hero. (n.d.). Early Christian Writings: New Testament, Apocrypha, Gnostics, Church Fathers. Retrieved July 5, 2013, from http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/jesus/gregoryriley.html
Houlden, J. L. (2005). Jesus: the complete guide. London: Continuum
Jewish Groups in New Testament Times. (n.d.). Catholic Resources – Felix Just, S.J.. Retrieved July 6, 2013, from http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Jewish_Groups.htm
Paul: A Citizen of Two Cities | Reading Acts. (n.d.). Reading Acts | Some Thoughts on the Book of Acts and Pauline Theology. Retrieved July 6, 2013, from http://readingacts.wordpress.com/2011/09/06/paul-a-citizen-of-two-cities/
St Paul Biography – Saint Paul Profile, St Paul Childhood, Life & Timeline. (n.d.). Famous People – Famous People in History, Famous People List & Biography. Retrieved July 6, 2013, from http://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/st-paul-91.php
Tracing the Steps of the Apostle Paul - Truth in History. (n.d.). Home - Truth in History. Retrieved July 6, 2013, from http://truthinhistory.org/tracing-the-steps-of-the-apostle-paul.html
W eek 8
6. Write an essay about Sufism (you might need to do some additional outside research).
Sufism
Tasawwwuf (Sufism) is the inner psycho-spiritual view of Islam although nowadays most of them believe that it is not within their faith. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, a senior muslim scholar agues that Sufism is just a name for the inner dimension of Islam. Traditional Sufi scholars identify Sufism as a science whose objectives is the reimbursement of the human heart and make it to adore only God and nothing else while Ahmad ibn Ajida, a Sufi teacher terms it as science through which people can understand how to move closer to God and change their traits. The Sufis consider themselves as the original true believers of the Islam faith but they are opposed by the Wahhabi and Salafist Muslims.
Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century described Sufism as a dedication to serve Allah with all your heart without hindrance from worldly materials and wealth. Sufis stress that Islamic teachings should not only be learnt from books but people should also be taught by teachers, they believe that it will be better since students will emulate their teachers. The Sufis have greatly influenced the Muslims history through years, for instance Rumi, Omar and Al-Ghazali who are Sufi teachers have some of their ideas quoted by western philosophers, writers and theologians. The Sufis have played an essential role in spreading the Islamic religion to various parts of the world such as Africa, India and the Far East. Sufis understand their intention in life from the Qur’an (51:56) which states, ‘I created the Jinns and humankind only that they may worship me.’ From the verse it is argued that the Sufis belong to Tariqas or commands that were set not many centuries after the pass away of the prophet and it is known to Sufis that these orders are to be taught by a master.
Despite the long history of the Tariqas, Muslims doubt them saying that they were unfamiliar to the prophet himself hence there is no need for them to abide by them. The Sufis then convincingly use the Qur’an and Sunna to protect them although they themselves agree that the Tariqas were not established by the prophet, they tell that they were established by the prophet’s companions and their direct successors. Sufis are known as stanch Muslims who pray five times a day, giving support to the unable as charity, practice fasting among other practices. They are also known to also rigorously hold on to the outward observance of Islam but they are idiosyncratic in fostering theirs and others’ spiritual facet. They practice Dhikr by chanting Allah’s divine names, verses from the Qua’ran or the sayings of the prophet in honoring Allah. Dhikr is considered as a basis of serenity for Sufis. ‘They believe that devotion to the Sharia manifests in the limbs and Dhikr manifest in the heart with the result that the outward is sober, the inner is drunk on divine love.’ They use this saying to tell the status in which Dhikr leaves them (Sufism, n.d.)
7. You could also write an essay about Islam religious architecture
Islam religious architecture
Islamic architecture comprise of a number of religious arts of different styles and shapes. The Tahleel the most recognized mughal architecture that was known as akbar fort. Its main and popular architecture types include the mosque, the tomb, the palace and the fort. The most recognized Islamic structural style came soon after Muhammad’s time. It was known as The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah) found in Jerusalem and it’s one of the most recognized Muslim structures. This mosque is renowned for its circular dome and the use of decorated arabesque patterns. There was also the desert palace in Jordan and Syria which served caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths and the Germanic Visigoths found in Spain.
The ‘Arab plan’ was developed when modern concepts and styles were put into practice; they introduced a court and hypostyle prayer hall when they build the Great Mosque of Damascus which was constructed on top of the ancient temple of Jupiter and in place of the basilica of St. John the Baptist. There are some buildings that still date back to the period of Prophet Muhammad for example the Juatha mosque that is found in Saudi Arabia (Islamic Architecture, n.d.).
Some of the styles used in Islamic architecture
Persian style
Most of the Islamic architecture was adopted from Persia. This was the time when there was competition for governance among the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Ghurids where the main element was art. Great cities were constructed including the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan thus this greatly cultivated architecture. Some of the Mosques that were built in the Persian style are; the Shah Mosque constructed in 1629 in Isfahan Iraq, Friday Mosque in Afghanistan and the Shrine of Hazrat Ali in Afghanistan. These Mosques are characterized by their tapered bricks, large arcades and arches supported by a number of pillars.
Azerbaijani architecture
Nakchivan and Shirvan-Absheron schools of architecture were based in Azerbaijani and this was infuluenced by the conquest of Persia. Examples of this architecture are the mausoleum of Yusuf which was constructed in 1162, the Bibi-Heybat in Buku and the Palace of the Shirvanshahs. These architectures are characterized by the use of stones instead of bricks for building, stone carvings and were not symmetrical.
Turkistan architecture
It was introduced by Timur and reinforced by his successor and it led to emergence of Mughal School of art after the decline of IIkhanid, Indian school of art. The style is characterized by its axial symmetry and double domes of different shapes. Examples are; the Shah-e Zendahin Samarkand and mosque of Gowhar Shad in Mashhad.
Ottoman architecture
It was inspired by the Hagia Sophia. Most of these mosques are found in Turkey. They are characterized very large interior spaces and massive domes. Examples include the Blue mosque in Istanbul and the Taj Mahal in India among others.
Other styles include; the Indo-Islamic architecture in south Asia, Sino-Islamic style of China, Indonesian-Malay style in Indonesia and Somali-Islamic architecture in Somali. Some of the elements used to identify the Islamic architecture are; towers, four-iwan plan which contains three subsidiary halls and one main hall, prayer recess on an inside wall, domes and cupolas, Pishtaq which is the official entrance to the iwan, the use of mocarabe and muqarnas and central fountains used for ablutions (Period, n.d.).
8. Trace the history and philosophy of the Sikh faith.
History and Philosophy of the Sikh Faith
The Sikh religion started in 1469 and for that reason it is the youngest religion in the world but most organized in fact it is ranked number five in the world. Its name ‘Sikh’ means disciple in the Punjabi language. The religion was introduced by Guru Nanak Dev of Talwandi village in Pakistan. They call their God ‘Wahe-guru’ which means God is great.
Guru Nanak’s urge to adventure the challenges of life made him to leave his home when he was thirty year old. The Sikhs believe that he submerged when he was bathing in a stream in his native home. The man came three days later claiming that there is no Hindu or Muslim faith and this is when he introduced and started to spread Sikhism religion. The faith emerged due to constant conflict and misunderstandings between the Hindus and Muslims. These conflicts gave path to the em