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Introduction
Name, Taxonomy, Botany
Nutritional Value
Common Varieties
Agronomy
Pest & Disease Management
Post-harvest & Processing
Market and International Trade
Research and Development
1. Agro-climatic suitability
(a) Natural Habitat
Location: The mango grows to a good size and casts a dense shade, but the roots are not destructive. It requires full sun and perfect air drainage. It does best at the top or middle level of a slope. A windbreak should be provided in exposed areas. The trees may also need staking. In places where there is intense heat exposure, it needs the shade of other trees. In the greenhouse, full light and free air movement are important to avoid disease.
2. Biophysical limits
Mango thrives both in the sub-tropics and tropics. In the sub-tropics, the cold months ensure excellent floral induction but late frost is a major risk that destroys the tender parts of the trees and flowers or young fruits. In the tropics, the mango grows almost everywhere but for good commercial fruit production, a prominent dry season lasting more than three months is necessary. Mangoes prefer climates with much sunshine and a little rain. However, flowering is rather erratic in the tropics due to variable temperature and rain falling at the wrong time and high humidity. Mangoes grow best in seasonally wet/dry climate zones of the lowland tropics. A dry and/or cool season causes uniform floral initiation and tends to synchronize bloom and harvest. Mango is best adapted to hot, dry leeward areas that receive less than 400 mm of rainfall annually, but supplemental irrigation is desirable for highest yields in those areas. Dry weather during the flowering period is best for fruit production. Wind can damage flowers and reduce yields. High winds can knock fruit off trees or cause scarring, since the fruit hang on long, pendulous floral branches at the periphery of the canopy. Mango trees should be protected from strong winds, but windbreaks that shade or compete with them should be avoided. Anthracnose disease often destroys both flowers and developing fruits in humid, high-rainfall areas.
3. Altitude:
Mangoes grow almost everywhere up to 0-1200 m elevation. Generally, above 600 m inAsia, the climate becomes too cold and often too humid for commercial cultivars. Mangoes will grow from sea level to an elevation of about 500 m, but mangoes are most productive below 400 m.
4. Temperature
Mango does not attain a truly dormant state, but ceases growth at temperatures below 13 – 15 ºC. Temperatures below 15 or above 37 °C at flowering can cause flower abortion, loss of pollen viability, and occasionally seedless fruit development (small). Young plants may be killed or badly damaged by frost at or below -1.7° to -2.8° C, whilst leaves and twigs are damaged on mature trees. Mature trees may be severely damaged or killed at temperatures of -4.4° to -6.7° C (Campbell et al. 1985). An optimum temperature of around 24 to 27 ºC is suitable for commercial fruit production.
5. Soils Suitability
Mangoes are adapted to many soil types, it will grow in almost any well-drained soil whether sandy, loam or clay, but avoid heavy, wet soils. A pH between 5.5 and 7.5 is preferred. They are somewhat tolerant of alkalinity. For good growth, mangoes need deep soil to accommodate their extensive root systems. Deep rich soils give the best production and fruit quality. Well drained soils are recommended. Moderately sloping sites are also recommended to prevent water logging. Deep soils without impermeable layers permit the development of deep taproots that aids in drought tolerance and wind resistance.
6. Planting and planting materials
Propagation:
Mangos are propagated either vegetatively or by seed. Seedlings are grown sometimes to produce new cultivars but mainly for use as rootstocks or to reproduce known polyembryonic mode for reproduction: contains more than one embryo; produces true-to-type progeny cultivars. Monoembryonic mode of reproduction: contains only one embryo types, however, require vegetative propagation to retain all of the desired characteristics. It is also known that trees grafted on selected rootstocks remain smaller than the rootstock plants propagated for further grafting/budding, and bear better and earlier.
The selection of suitable rootstock is as important as the selection of the scion the plant part grafted onto the stock cultivar variety, type. It has a strong influence on the growth, yield, fruit maturity stage of final fruit development (ripeness) and soil adaptability, among other things. In Kenya, the uniform seeds of the polyembryonic cultivars Sabre, Peach and Dodo are routinely used successfully. Seeds must be taken from ripe fruits and should be as fresh as possible at the time of planting. Before planting, the hard woody endocarp should be removed to examine the seed for disease or any damage caused by the mango weevil (Sternochetus sp.). Freshly sown seeds should be protected from high temperatures and dessication by providing shade. The seeds normally germinate in two to four weeks, and do best with bottom heat. Multiple polyembryonic seedlings should be carefully separated as soon as they have sprouted so not to loose the cotyledons. Once seedlings emerge the shade is removed to harden the plants and produce sturdy stems. The seedlings are carefully lifted and all the malformed and unhealthy ones are culled. The good quality seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags or containers not smaller than 18 x 35 cm they remain there until they are of pencil thickness with 3-5 red leaves at about 20 cm above soil level. This may be about one month after transplanting planting.
Besides, there are many other techniques used to graft mango seedlings, but the most common methods are side-graft, side veneer and wedge- and whip-graft.
Small plants with a diameter of a pencil graft well with the common whip graft. On larger trees the crown groove bark graft allows several scions to be put on at once. Fully grown trees may be top-worked by crown or groove bark graft, or prune hard and whip graft sprouts later. Plastic bagging with a few drops of moisture improves the graft’s chances of being successful.
Graft in the second year, using cleft, side or tongue (splice) graft in midsummer. Scion and stock should be swelling for a new flush of growth. Grafts are most successful if the leaves are allowed to remain below the graft, but remove suckers. Use pencil-sized scions of hard wood with three or four nodes. Cover with loose punctured white paper bag for shade.
If top working (Figure 10), do not dehorn the entire tree at one time; leave at least two fully leafed branches intact. Marcotting is feasible in humid climates or greenhouses, but results in few plants. Budding can be done by using a shield bud in an inverted T, at the moment the tree begins a new growth flush. Cuttings are rarely successful, although experiments have shown that rooting may be improved by treating with ethylene, which destroys the root-inhibiting hormone in the cambium.
A mango tree must never be transplanted while it is flushing or when the leaves are still tender; the best time to transplant is after the second flush has hardened.The top-working converting a grown tree by grafting of fruit trees is a normal orchard practice and is necessary to replace old cultivars/seedlings with improved selections which are developed from time to time. Top-worked trees will start bearing within 2–3 years, i.e. much earlier than a newly planted tree. Seedling mangos will bloom and bear in three to six years after field planting.
Establishment :
Mango is successfully grown on a wide range of soils. The trees do well in sandy soils at the coastline as well as on loam at other elevations. The essential prerequisites for good development of the trees are deep soils (at least 3 m), appropriate rainfall (500–1000 mm), good drainage, suitable altitude (0–1200 m) and preferably a pH value refers to degree of acidity or alkalinity as a scale of numbers from 1 (very acid) to 14 (very alkaline)of between 5.5 and 7.5. The tree itself is not difficult to grow and, once well established, is relatively tolerant of drought, occasional flooding and poor soil condition. Irrigation in the first years after planting promotes flushing (and suppresses flowering), so that tree size increases quickly. Irrigation also widens the scope for intercropping the growing of two crops simultaneously in the same field, for example, with papaya, banana, pineapple or vegetables, during the establishment phase. When the trees are big enough to produce a substantial crop, irrigation is stopped, or at least interrupted long enough to impose quiescence leading to flower initiation.
Among the various climatic factors, temperature, rainfall and humidity have a greater bearing on mango production than irrigation and soils. Furthermore, the production of high quality mango fruit does not depend so much on elevation but on the range of temperatures available. The two important considerations for mango cultivation are a dry period at the time of flowering—inMalaysia(during the months of ) andKenya(mainly during the months of August to October) and sufficient heat during the time of fruit ripening. For optimum growth and productivity, 20–26°C is believed to be ideal. Temperatures exceeding 40°C may, especially in hot/dry areas, lead to sunburn of fruits and stunting of tree growth. The amount of rainfall in a given locality is not as important as its intensity and distribution. Rainfall of 500–1000 mm at the right time of the year is sufficient for successful cultivation. However, the mango cannot do well in areas which experience frequent rains or very high humidity during the flowering period. Such conditions are not conducive to good fruit set and they increase the incidence of serious diseases like powdery mildew and anthracnose. Anthracnose can be a major problem as the same organism occurs on avocado, coffee and papaya. Powdery mildew is quite common when low temperatures accompany high humidity.
Since mango is a long-lived perennial, the planting distance usually depends to a large extent on the vigor of the cultivar variety, type/rootstock plants propagated for further grafting/budding and on the environment. Most orchards which are planted too densely, the trees are forced to grow upright and tall. Overcrowding results in the production of fewer fruits that are poorly colored and sometimes infected with diseases. Tall trees also present a harvesting problem and create difficulties during spraying and pruning. Normally, grafted trees are spaced at 8 x 10 m or 10 x 12 m, though at the coast seedlings require 12 x 14 m. Intercrops of short-lived fruit trees such as papaya or annual crops could be used for better utilization of land in widely spaced young plantations. The location of the intended planting will dictate the choice of cultivars
Interculture:
Interculture in orchards is practicable for the proper upkeep of any mango orchard. The removal of weeds not only avoids the competition for essential nutrients but also creates better physical soil environment for plant growth, particularly root development. It also helps in water movement in soil and in controlling some of the insect pests. Moreover, it ensures proper incorporation of the applied plant nutrients in soil and reduces their loss.
Frequency and the time of interculture operations vary with age of the orchard and existence of intercrops (e.g guava). Immediately after planting the mango, the weed problem may not exist, but it is advisable to break the crust with hand hoe each time after 10 to 15 irrigations. However, subsequent hoeing may be done depending on weed growth in the basin. Interculture operations are equally important for the bearing mango orchards. First ploughing should be done before the onset of rains. This will help in checking run-off losses and facilitate maximum retention of water in the soil. Orchard may be ploughed again after the rainy season is over in order to suppress weed growth and to break capillaries.
Planting Design, Training and Pruning:
Prior to planting, field should be deeply ploughed, harrowed and leveled. Pits of proper size should be dug at appropriate distances and filled by adding sufficient quantity of farmyard manure. The seedlings to be planted should be procured from reliable nurseries few days before actual transplanting.
(1) Time of planting: The best time for planting is when there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere. In the area of heavy rainfall, the best time of planting mango is the end of the rainy season. In tracts where the rainfall is less, the planting can be done in the early part of the monsoon for better establishment. The planting should be done in the evening; otherwise if the day turns out to be unusually hot or dry, the plants may wither due to excessive loss of water. If the sky is overcast, planting can be done during daytime also
(ii) Planting distance: The planting distance varies according to variety, the fertility level of the soil and general growth conditions in the area. Where the growth is excessive, the distance should be 14 x 14 m, but in the dry zones where the growth is less, it can be regulated to about 10 x 10 m. For high density planting, the distance can be 5 x 3 or 5 x 2.5 or 3 x 2.5 or 2.5 x 2.5 m.
For increased early production, an extra tree may be planted in between mango placement and the center of a 200-square meter to be removed later when overcrowding is prevalent.
(iii) Size of pits: In locations where the soil is loamy and deep, pits of 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 m be dug at desired distances. However, in shallow and hill soils, the pits should at last be of 1 x 1 x 1 m size.
(iv) Filling of pits: The pits should be filled with the original soil mixed with 10-50 kg well rotten farmyard manure. In the top two-third portion, the proportion of the manure and soil may be kept as 1:3. In case of stony soils, it is better to remove all the stones from the excavated material and remaining soils should be mixed with soil scrapped from the left over area. The pits should invariably be filled before the rainy season, so that there is maximum settling down before the advent of heavy rainfall and much before planting.
(v) Planting of mango seedling: The plant with its ball of earth intact should be taken out of the soil or pot. The plant can then be placed with the help of a planting board in the centre of the pit by excavating as much soil as necessary to accommodate the root-ball. The moist soil of the pit is then pressed all around the root ball to complete the planting process. A small basin is then made and the plant is properly watered. The planting should not be done so high as to expose the upper roots. It is always better to adjust it at the same height/depth at which it was in the seedling bag or the nursery bed.
(vi) Young Tree Establishment: Newly planted trees should be watered two or three times the first week, then once or twice per week for several weeks. Simply fill the water basin and let the water soak in. The water ring will gradually erode away over four to six months, at which time the tree can be considered established.
Delay fertilization until new growth occurs after planting, then apply monthly. Scatter the fertilizer on the ground under the tree and promptly water thoroughly. Using ammonium sulfate (21-0-0), use one half cup monthly in the first year, one cup per month in the second and two cups monthly in the third year. For other fertilizer analyses, adjust the rate accordingly. Fertilization, using 21-0-0, should be at the rate of one to two cups per inch of trunk diameter per year, split into equal applications at 4 monthly intervals. Simply scatter the fertilizer on the soil surface under the tree, then water thoroughly.
All lawn grass and weeds should be eliminated for several feet around the young mango, as the tree cannot compete for water and nutrients until it is much larger. As the tree grows, widen the grass-free area beyond the canopy. Organic mulches are excellent for mango trees. No pruning or training should be necessary except to remove deadwood.
(vii) Mature Tree Care. Cultural practices are designed to maintain good growth and production. Irrigation, nutrition, and weed and grass control are the major practices in mature mango tree care.
Irrigation is the same as for other established fruit trees–
water slowly, deeply and thoroughly. Repeat as needed, based on soil type and prevailing weather. Weekly soakings during the summer are more than adequate.
Weed and grass control under the tree is desirable to reduce competition and can be easily maintained by use of organic mulch replenished as necessary.
The only pruning necessary is to remove dead or damaged branches, which will occur following major freezes unless excellent cold protection methods are practiced. Then, pruning should be delayed until the extent of freeze damage can be ascertained.
(viii) Training: Normally, mango trees require very little training. However, the training of the plants during the initial stages is very essential to give them proper shape. In formative years, trees may be pruned to have one main trunk clear of branching up to about 1 m. After that, they assume a desirable rounded canopy shape naturally. When the graft has branched too low, the process of training becomes very important. At least 75 cm of the main stem should be kept free from branching and the first leader/main branch may be allowed after that. The main branches should be spaced in such a way that they grow in different directions and are at least 20 to 25 cm apart, otherwise there are chances of breakage due to smaller crotch angles and heavy top. The branches which exhibit tendency of crossing and rubbing each other should be removed in the pencil thickness stage, otherwise they break by rubbing each other at a later stage and create complications. Secondly, if the center is closed, the fruits produced are of poor quality having less coloration in the absence of sufficient sunlight. By following the above practice and after giving proper shape to the trees, there will be much less scope for future pruning except removal of diseased, pest infested or dried shoots/wood. More importantly, the few fruits set in a tree’s first years of fruiting should be removed to speed up tree development.
(ix) Pollination: The pollen grains are of variable shapes, with the size varying from 20 to 35 micron. Small amounts of pollen are produced in mango. The grains of pollen are sphaeroidal to prolate sphaeroidal, radially symmetrical, subangular in polar view and isopolar with a few giant triploid ones of up to 50 micron. Further they are 3-monocolporate, goniotreme, sides convex-subprolate; apertures equidistant and zonal with ecto-aperture (colpus) extend slit-like from pole to pole.
Mangoes are considered self-fertile and do not require pollinators, but research indicates that some cultivars are self-unfruitful or at least benefit from cross-pollination. Fruit set is generally just a few percent, with an average of only one mango per panicle. The pollen incorrectly is said to cause eye irritation and dermatitis; there is almost no air-borne pollen since it is heavy and adherent. The irritation probably results from volatile, irritating oils. Pollination is achieved by wild insects such as ants, flies, and to a lesser extent, honey bees.
There is no indication that to place colonies of honey bees in mango groves has become an accepted practice; however, the chances are likely that such bee usage is needed. The evidence is quite strong that concentration of colonies of honeybees within the mango grove would result in increased floral visitation and possibly more stabilized set of fruits, particularly in some years. The mango flowers do not appear to be overly attractive to honey bees and they tend to open in large numbers at a time of year when many other flowers are also available, so visitation in commercial groves is likely to be far below that necessary for maximum floral visitation. If such is the case, a heavy concentration of colonies in the grove, possibly three to six per acre, may be necessary to obtain maximum fruit set.
7. Irrigation requirements:
Amount and frequency of irrigation depends upon the type of soil, prevailing climatic conditions, especially rainfall to be given and its distribution and age of trees. No irrigation is required during the monsoon months unless there are long spells of drought. Irrigation should start when the weather warms up. Continue every one to two weeks, more often in light soils, nearly continuously in areas where soil water retention is low. Irrigation may be discontinued when rains are sufficient to maintain soil moisture.
During the first year when the plants are very young with shallow root system, they should be watered every 2 to 3 days in the dry season. Trees in the age group of 2 to 5 years should be irrigated at 4 to 5 days interval. The irrigation interval could be increased to 10 to 15 days for 5 to 8 years old plants during dry season. Although hot, dry weather is favorable to fruit development, supplementary irrigation between flowering and harvest is advisable for good yields. Trees have a high water requirement during fruit maturation. When trees are in full bearing stage, generally 2 – 3 times of irrigation are given after the fruit set. Irrigation should be given at 50 percent field capacity. After harvesting, watering is then increased after one to two months to initiate a new bloom and growth cycle.
Generally, intercrops are grown during the early years of plantation and hence frequency and method of irrigation has to be adjusted accordingly. It is advisable to irrigate the mango plants in basins around them, which can be connected in series or to the irrigation channel in the centre of rows. The intercrops need to be irrigated independently as per their specific requirements. In mono-cropping of mango, basin irrigation is preferable with a view to economize water use.
During the first two years, the trees should be given some frost protection such as an overhead cover. Once the tree is 1 to 1.2 meter high, overhead protection is difficult but still worthwhile, especially if an unusual cold snap is predicted. Frost damage can also be avoided by erecting an overhead lath shelter, orchard heating, placing lights under the canopy, or using foam or straw trunk wraps. Do not prune dead parts until all frost danger is past.
8. Fertilization
Soil fertility has a direct effect on all aspects of crop growth and development. In some cases, post-harvest disorders can be linked directly to the deficiency of a particular mineral, but often other environmental factors such as water stress are involved. “Spongy tissue” symptoms in mango have been linked to mineral deficiency and copper and iron deficiencies cause abnormal peel development in the fruits.
Nutrient uptake in mango is from large volume of soils. Therefore, it is able to sustain growth even in low fertility soils. However, its efficient management involves the replenishment of the nutrients used-up by the tree for its growth and maintenance, harvested produce and natural losses from soils through leaching and run off. Even the under-nourished trees can be revived by suitable supplementation of nutrients through fertilizers.
Mango trees require regular applications of nitrogen fertilizer to promote healthy growth flushes and flower production. Organic fertilizers perform best, since the trees are subject to fertilizer burn. Young trees are particularly sensitive to over-fertilizing, but respond well to fish emulsion.Sandysoils require more fertilizer than loam or clay.
Fertilizer may be a 1:1:1 or 1:2:2 N-P-K ratio formulation, such as 14-14-14 or 10-20-20 N-P-K. During tree establishment, phosphorus (P) is important for root development. Nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) are needed by bearing trees for good yields.
The idea of applying manure to fruit bearing trees is also to secure regular fruit production. Application of manure to mango plants starts right from planting operation in the orchard. First application is made at the time of filling of the pits. Fertilizer application during the first year of planting may be given as 100 g N, 50 g P2O5 and 100 g K2O per plant. The above dose should be increased every year up to 10 years in the multiple of first year’s dose. Accordingly, a 10-year-old tree should receive 1 kg N, 500 g P2O5 and 1 kg K2O. This dose should continue to be applied in subsequent years also. Application of 50 kg well-decomposed organic manure should be given each four year to create proper soil physical environment. For trench application of fertilizers, 400 g each of N and K2O and 200 g of P2O5 per plant should be given.
Fertilizers may be applied in two split doses, one half immediately after the harvesting of fruits and the other half 3 to 4 months later, in both young and old orchards, followed by irrigation if there are no rains. Supplemental N and foliar application of 3 percent urea in sandy soils is recommended before flowering, when vegetative growth flushes rather than flowering occur. Slow-release fertilizer formulations are preferred, except for supplemental N applications, which should have rapid release.
The mixture of recommended dose of fertilizers should be broadcast under the canopy of plant leaving about 50 cm from tree trunk in old trees. The applied fertilizer should be incorporated well up to the dept of 15 cm soil. To increase fertilizer use efficiency, fertilizers should be applied in 25 cm wide and 25 to 30 cm deep trenches dug around the tree 2 m away from trunk.
9. Pruning:
Healthy trees require little pruning, although pruning to stimulate new growth promotes uniform annual bearing. Removing some flower clusters during a heavy bloom year may also alleviate alternate bearing.
Developing trees should be trained to eliminate low branches less than 1 m from the ground, leaving three to four main branches on the trunk at different heights. Pruning of well-formed older trees is usually confined to removal of dead branches. Pruning is preferably done after fruiting, before a growth flush occurs. Pruning can also be done to restrict tree size for small yards/orchards or when more than 51 trees per hectare are planted. Some delay in flowering can be expected from new growth produced in response to pruning. As the tree grows older, it may be hedged and topped to control size. This is done after harvest which does not affect next year’s crop since fruit are borne terminally on growth flushes that occur after pruning. Severe pruning will decrease fruiting the following year, however.
Pruning in the tropics
In the tropics mango trees trend to be extremely vigorous. The tendency is to want to reduce the size by heavy pruning but this can be detrimental to yield for several seasons after pruning. This is primarily due to the lack of a growth check, e.g. cold temperatures. Light pruning of trees in the tropics just prior to flowering (see tip pruning: flowering and fruiting) has shown promise. Research is currently under way in the tropics to address these issues.
Pruning in the subtropics
Cool winter temperatures in the subtropics generally impose a growth check on the trees. Postharvest pruning is a common practice in these regions. The frequency and severity of the pruning will be a matter of judgement depending on the timing and extent of the previous season’s growth. For cropping not to be detrimentally affected by maintenance pruning, a following growth flush must occur.
Reference:
Diczbalis, Y., Wicks, C. and Landrigan, M. (1997). Heat sums to predict fruit maturity in mango (cv. Kensington Pride). Draft report for HRDC FR605 NTDPI&F.
Johnson, P.R. and Robinson, D.R. (1997). An evaluation of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivars and their commercial suitability for theKimberley. Department of Agriculture. 21/97 ISSN 1326-4168 Agdex 234/34.
Morton, J. 1987. Mango. p. 221–239. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton,Miami,FL.
P.R. Johnson and D. Parr. Mango growing in Western Australia. Bulletin 4348
Maxwell, Lewis S. and Betty M. Maxwell. Florida Fruit. Lewis S. Maxwell, Publisher. 1984. pp. 61-63
Samson, J. A. Tropical Fruits. 2nd ed. Longman Scientific and Technical. 1986. pp. 216-234.
Sherrard, J., Johnson, P.R. and Luke, G. (1997). Mango irrigation requirements for the Broome and Ord irrigation areas of Western Australia. Department of Agriculture. Draft report.
Sites on Mango
Subtropical/Trop. Fruit Crops Database: http://www.agnic.nal.usda.gov/agdb/stropfc.html
Mango Produce Facts Linked from the Postharvest Outreach Program, UC Davis
Mango Overview, Propagation, And Agroforestry Uses Linked from Cornell University
All About Mangoes
Mango Fruit Facts and Mango Publications Courtesy of California Rare Fruit Growers.
Mango Information Linked from NewCrops, Purdue University.
Mango Tip Burn And Sunburn Images Linked from Texas A & M.
Mango Production Regions Linked from the Dept. of Agronomy, U.C. Davis
Mango-Research and Development A site on various aspects related to manoes
Mango recipes, history, varieties etc — http://freshmangoes.com. or http://freshmangoes.com/mangonews/
Mango Index Linked Information Mango Produce Facts
Mango Food Resource (http://osu.orst.edu/food-resource/index.html) Oregon State University, Corvallis
Postharvest Handling of Pickling Mango
Mango an introductory description http://www.safari.net/~lychee/mango.htm
Mangoes – Preparation and nutrition information – Preparation, cooking, and nutritional information for Mangoes
Mango Botanical Description
Subtropical/Tropical Fruits Menu University of Florida.
Subtropical/Tropical Fruit Crops National Agriculture Library, USA
Market Asia – Technical Information (Postharvest and Market Guides) http://www.marketasia.org/tech
Mango Mania! is page devoted to the king of fruits http://www.delphis.dm/mango.htm
http://www.destinationtropicals.com/tropical_plants/plant_43.asp
http://mangoseedling.com/culturalmgmt.html