2014-03-27



Identification. Ghana, formerly the  British colony of the Gold Coast, assumes a special      prominence as the first  African country to acquire independence from      European rule. Ghanaian  politicians marked this important transition by      replacing the territory’s  colonial label with the name of a great (  Ghana Culture)   indigenous civilization of the  past. While somewhat mythical, these      evocations of noble origins, in  combination with a rich cultural heritage      and a militant nationalist  movement, have provided this ethnically diverse      country with unifying  symbols and a sense of common identity and destiny.      Over forty years of  political and economic setbacks since independence      have tempered national  pride and optimism. Yet, the Ghanaian people have      maintained a society free  from serious internal conflict and continue to      develop their considerable  natural, human, and cultural resources.

          Location and Geography.   Ghana  is located on the west coast of Africa, approximately midway      between  Senegal and Cameroon. It is bordered by Côte d’Ivoire      (Ivory Coast),  Burkina Faso, Togo, and the Atlantic Ocean. The land      surface of 92,100  square miles (238,540 square kilometers) is dominated by      the ancient  Precambrian shield, which is rich in mineral resources, such      as gold and  diamonds. The land rises gradually to the north and does not      reach an  altitude of more than 3,000 feet (915 meters). The Volta River      and its  basin forms the major drainage feature; it originates in the north      along  two widely dispersed branches and flows into the sea in the eastern      part of  the country near the Togolese border. The Volta has been dammed at       Akosombo, in the south, as part of a major hydroelectric project, to form      the Lake Volta. Several  smaller rivers, including the Pra and the Tano,      drain the regions to the  west. Highland areas occur as river escarpments,      the most extensive of  which are the Akwapim-Togo ranges in the east, the      Kwahu escarpment in the  Ashanti region, and the Gambaga escarpment in the      north.

Ghana’s subequatorial climate is warm and humid, with distinct       alternations between rainy summer and dry winters. The duration and amount       of rainfall decreases toward the north, resulting in a broad       differentiation between two regions— southern rain forest and      northern  savanna—which form distinct environmental, economic, and      cultural zones.  The southern forest is interrupted by a low-rainfall      coastal savanna that  extends from Accra eastward into Togo.

          Demography.   The population in  2000 was approximately 20 million and was growing at a      rate of 3 percent  per year. Approximately two-thirds of the people live in      the rural regions  and are involved in agriculture. Settlement is      concentrated within the  “golden triangle,” defined by the      major southern cities of Accra (the  capital), Kumasi, and      Sekondi-Takoradi. Additional concentrations occur in  the northernmost      districts, especially in the northeast. The population is  almost      exclusively African, as Ghana has no history of intensive European      settlement. There is a small Lebanese community, whose members settled in      the country as traders. Immigration from other African countries, notably       Burkina Faso, Togo, Liberia, and Nigeria, is significant. Some of the       better established immigrant groups include many Ghanaian-born members,      who  are nevertheless classified as “foreign” according to      Ghana’s citizenship  laws.

          Linguistic Affiliation.  Ghana’s  national language is English, a heritage of its former      colonial status. It  is the main language of government and instruction.


            Ghana          

Ghanaians speak a distinctive West African version of English as a       standard form, involving such usages as chop (eat) and dash (gift).      English  is invariably a second language. Mother tongues include over sixty       indigenous languages. Akan is the most widely spoken and has acquired       informal national language status. In addition to the large number of       native speakers, many members of other groups learn Akan as a second       language and use it fluently for intergroup communication. Ga-Adangme and       Ewe are the next major languages. Hausa, a Nigerian language, is spoken as       a trade language among peoples from the north. Many Ghanaians are       multilingual, speaking one or two indigenous languages beside their native       dialects and English. Although Ghana is bounded by francophone nations on       all sides, few Ghanaians are proficient in French.

 

          Symbolism.               

As a relatively new  nation, Ghana has not developed an extensive      tradition of collective  symbols. Its most distinctive emblems originated      in the nationalist  movement. The most prominent is the black star, which      evokes black pride  and power and a commitment to pan-African unity, which      were central themes  for mobilizing resistance against British rule. It is      featured on the flag  and the national coat of arms, and in the national      anthem. It is also the  name of Ghana’s soccer team and is proudly      displayed in Black Star Square,  a central meeting point in the capital.      Other important symbols derive from  Akan traditions that have become      incorporated into the national culture.  These include the ceremonial      sword, the linguist’s staff, the chief’s  stool, and the      talking drum. Ghanaian national dress,                kente              cloth, is another source of common identity and pride. It  is handwoven      into intricate patterns from brilliantly colored silk. Men  drape it around      their bodies and women wear it as a two-pieced outfit. The  main      exports—gold and cocoa—also stand as identifying symbols.

      History and Ethnic Relations

          Emergence of the Nation.                       Ghana  is a colonial creation, pieced together from numerous indigenous      societies  arbitrarily consolidated, and sometimes divided, according to      European  interests. There is no written documentation of the      region’s past prior to  European contact. By the time the Portuguese      first established themselves  on the coast in the fifteenth century,      kingdoms had developed among various  Akan-speaking and neighboring groups      and were expanding their wealth, size,  and power. The Portuguese quickly      opened a sea route for the gold trade,  and the emergence of the      “Gold Coast” quickly attracted competition from  Holland,      England, France, and other European countries. With the  development of      American plantation systems, slaves were added to the list  of exports and      the volume of trade expanded. The Ashanti kingdom emerged as  the      preeminent Akan political force and established its rule over several      neighboring groups and into the northern savanna. Some indigenous states       on the margins of Ashanti expansion, such as Akim and Akwapem, retained       their independence. Coastal peoples were able to resist conquest through       alliances with European powers.

In the nineteenth century, England assumed dominance on the coast and      developed a protectorate over the local African communities. England came      into conflict with Ashanti over coastal expansion and the continuation of       the slave trade. At the end of the nineteenth century, it defeated Ashanti       and established the colony of the Gold Coast, including the coastal       regions, Ashanti, and the Northern Territories beyond. The boundaries of       this consolidation, which included many previously separate and      independent  kingdoms and tribal communities, were negotiated by the      European powers to  suit their strategic and economic interests. After      1918, England further  complicated this arrangement by annexing the      trans-Volta region from German  Togoland as a spoil of World War I.

The colony was administered under the system of indirect rule, in which      the British controlled affairs at the national level but organized local      control through indigenous rulers under the supervision of colonial       district commissioners. Western investment, infrastructure, and       institutional development were concentrated in the urban complexes that       emerged within the coastal ports. Educational and employment opportunities       were created for Africans, mostly from coastal communities, but only for       the purpose of staffing the lower echelons of the public and commercial       sectors. The rural masses were disadvantaged by the colonial regime and      the  exactions of their chiefs but gained some degree of wealth and local       development through the growth of a lucrative export trade in cocoa,       especially in the forest zone. The north received little attention.

Resistance to British rule and calls for independence were initiated  from      the onset of colonial rule. Indigenous rulers formed the initial core  of      opposition, but were soon co-opted. The educated Westernized coastal  elite      soon took up the cause, and the independence movement remained under  their      control until the end of World War II. After the war, nationalists  formed      the United Gold Coast Convention        and tried to broaden their  base and take advantage of mass unrest that      was fed by demobilization,  unemployment, and poor commodity prices. They      brought in Kwame  Nkrumah, a former student activist, to lead this      campaign. Nkrumah soon  broke ranks with his associates and formed a more      radical movement though  the Convention People’s Party. He gained      mass support from all parts of the  colony and initiated strikes and public      demonstrations that landed him in  jail but finally forced the British to      grant independence. The Gold Coast  achieved home rule in 1951. On 6 March      1957 it became the self-governing  country of Ghana, the first sub-Saharan      colony to gain independence. In the  succeeding decades, Ghana experienced      a lot of political instability, with  a series of coups and an alternation      between civilian and military regimes.

          National Identity.                       In spite of  its disparate origins and arbitrary boundaries, Ghana has      developed a  modest degree of national coherence. British rule in itself      provided a  number of unifying influences, such as the use of English as a      national  language and a core of political, economic, and service      institutions. Since  independence, Ghanaian leaders have strengthened      national integration,  especially through the expansion of the educational      system and the  reduction of regional inequalities. They have also      introduced new goals and  values through the rhetoric of the independence      movement, opposition to  “neo-colonialist” forces, and      advocacy of pan-Africanism. A second set of  common traditions stem from      indigenous cultures, especially from the  diffusion of Akan institutions      and symbols to neighboring groups.

          Ethnic Relations.                       Ghana  contains great diversity of ethnic groups. The Akan are the most      numerous,  consisting of over 40 percent of the population. They are      followed by the  Ewe, Ga, Adangme, Guan, and Kyerepong in the south. The      largest northern  groups are the Gonja, Dagomba, and Mamprussi, but the      region contains many  small decentralized communities, such as the Talensi,      Konkomba, and  Lowiili. In addition, significant numbers of Mossi from      Burkina Faso have  immigrated as agricultural and municipal workers.      Nigerian Hausa are widely  present as traders.

Intergroup relations are usually affable and Ghana has avoided major      ethnic hostilities and pressure for regional secession. A small Ewe       separatist movement is present and some localized ethnic skirmishes have       occurred among small communities in the north, mostly over boundary      issues.  There is, however, a major cultural divide between north and      south. The  north is poorer and has received less educational and      infrastructural  investment. Migrants from the region, and from adjoining      areas of Burkina  Faso, Togo, and Nigeria typically take on menial      employment or are involved  in trading roles in the south, where they      occupy segregated residential  wards called                zongos.              Various forms of  discrimination are apparent.

      Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

Although Ghana is primarily a rural country, urbanization has a long      tradition within indigenous and modern society. In the south the       traditional settlement was a nucleated townsite that served as a      king’s or  a chief’s administrative base and housed the      agricultural population,  political elite, and occupational specialists. In      precolonial times,  populations in these centers ranged from a few hundred      to several thousand  in a major royal capital, such as Kumasi, which is now      Ghana’s second  largest city. Traditional political nodes also      served economic functions  concentrated in open-air marketplaces, which      still constitute a central  feature of traditional and modern towns.      Housing consists of a one-story  group of connected rooms arranged in a      square around a central courtyard,  which serves as the primary focus of      domestic activity. The chief’s or  king’s palace is an      enlarged version of the basic household. Settlement in  the north follows a      very different pattern of dispersed farmsteads.

The British administration introduced Western urban infrastructures,      mainly in the coastal ports, such as Accra, Takoradi, and Cape Coast, a       pattern that postcolonial governments have followed. Thus central      districts  are dominated by European-style buildings, modified for tropical       conditions. Neither regime devoted much attention to urban planning or       beautification, and city parks or other public spaces are rare. Accra       contains two notable monuments: Black Star Square and the Kwame Nkrumah       Mausoleum, symbols of Ghana’s commitment to independence and      African unity.

Much of the vibrancy of urban life is due to the incorporation of       indigenous institutions, especially within the commercial sector. Commerce       is dominated by open-air markets, such as the huge Markola market in      Accra,  where thousands of traders offer local and imported goods for sale.       Although the very wealthy have adopted Western housing styles, most urban       Ghanaians live in traditional dwellings, in which renters from a variety      of  backgrounds mingle in central courtyards in much


            A man builds a small granary from wood and  straw for his village in            Ghana. The country’s economy is primarily  agricultural.          

the same way that family  members do in traditional households.      Accordingly, marketplaces and housing  compounds provide the predominant      settings for public interaction.

 

      Food and Economy

Read more about the Food  and Cuisine of Ghana.

          Food in Daily Life.                       The basic  diet consists of a starchy staple eaten with a soup or stew.      Forest crops,  such as plantain, cassava, cocoyam (taro), and tropical      yams, predominate  in the south. Corn is significant, especially among the      Ga, and rice is  also popular. The main dish is                fufu,              pounded  plantain or tubers in combination with cassava. Soup ingredients      include  common vegetables and some animal protein, usually fish, and      invariably,  hot peppers. Palm nut and peanut soups are special favorites.      The main  cooking oil is locally produced red palm oil. The northern staple      is  millet, which is processed into a paste and eaten with a soup as well.       Indigenous diets are eaten at all social levels, even by the Westernized       elite. Bread is the only major European introduction and is often eaten at       breakfast. Restaurants are not common outside of urban business districts,       but most local “chop bars” offer a range of indigenous      dishes to workers  and bachelors. People frequently snack on goods offered      for sale by street  hawkers.

          Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions.                       Most households raise chickens and dwarf goats, which are reserved for      special occasions, such as christenings, weddings, traditional festivals,       and Christmas. Among the Akan, the main indigenous celebration is                odwira,              a harvest rite, in which new yams are presented to  the chief and eaten in      public and domestic feasts. The Ga celebrate                 homowo,              another harvest festival, which is marked  by eating                kpekpele,              made from mashed corn and  palm oil. Popular drinks include palm wine, made      from the fermented sap of  the oil palm, and home-brewed millet beer.      Bottled European-style beer is  widely consumed. Imported schnapps and       whiskey have  important ceremonial uses as libations for royal and family      ancestors.

          Basic Economy.                       Ghana’s position  in the international economy reflects a heavy      dependence on primary product  exports, especially cocoa, gold, and timber.      International trade accounts  for one-third of gross domestic product      (GDP), and 70 percent of export  income is still derived from the three      major commodities. The domestic  economy is primarily agricultural with a      substantial service and trading  sector. Industrial production comprises      only 10 percent of national output,  and consumers are heavily dependent      upon imported manufactures as well as  petroleum imports.

          Land Tenure and Property.                       Traditional land use patterns were organized around a slash-and-burn      system  in which crops were grown for two or three years and then fallowed      for much  longer periods. This system fostered communal land tenure      systems, in which  a large group, usually the lineage, held the land in      trust for its members  and allocated usufruct rights on demand. In the      south, reserved lands,  known as stool lands, were held by the chief for      the wider community. The  stool also held residual rights in lineage-owned      land, for instance a claim  on any gold found. In the north, communal      rights were invested in a ritual  figure, the                tendana,              who assumed the ultimate  responsibility for agriculture rituals and land      allocation.

In modern times, land tenure has been widely affected by cocoa farming  and      other commercial uses, which involve a permanent use of the land and a      substantial expansion in demand for new plots. Land sales and long-term       leases have developed in some areas, often on stool reserves. Purchased       lands are considered private rather than family or communal property and       activate a different inheritance pattern, since they can be donated or       willed without reference to the standard inheritance rule.

Government regulation of land title has normally deferred to  traditional      arrangements. Currently, a formally constituted Lands  Commission manages      government-owned lands and gold and timber reserve  leases and      theoretically has the right to approve all land transfers.  Nevertheless,      most transactions are still handled informally according to  traditional      practice.

          Commercial Activities.          

While  strongly export oriented, Ghanaian farmers also produce local foods      for  home consumption and for a marketing system that has developed around      the  main urban centers. Rural household activities also include some food       processing, including palm oil production. The fishery is quite important.       A modern trawler fleet organizes the offshore catch and supplies both the       domestic and overseas markets. Small-scale indigenous canoe crews dominate       the inshore harvest and supply the local markets. Traditional crafts have       also had a long tradition of importance for items such as pottery,       handwoven cloth, carved stools, raffia baskets, and gold jewelry. There      are  also many tailors and cabinetmakers.

          Major Industries.                       Manufactured  goods are dominated by foreign imports, but some local      industries have  developed, including palm oil milling, aluminum smelting,      beer and soft  drink bottling, and furniture manufacturing. The service      sector is  dominated by the government on the high end and the small-scale      sector,  sometimes referred to as the “informal sector,” on      the low end. Education  and health care are the most important public      services. Transport is  organized by small-scale owner-operators.      Construction is handled by the  public, private, or small-scale sector      depending upon the nature of the  project.

          Trade.               

Cocoa is grown by  relatively small-scale indigenous farmers in the forest      zone and is  exclusively a commercial crop. It is locally marketed through      private  licensed traders and exported through a public marketing board.      Gold is  produced by international conglomerates with some Ghanaian      partnership.  Much of the income from this trade is invested outside the      country. Timber  is also a large-scale formal-sector enterprise, but there      is a trend toward  developing a furniture export industry among indigenous      artisans. Other  exports include fish, palm oil, rubber, manganese,      aluminum, and fruits and  vegetables. Internal trade and marketing is      dominated by small-scale  operations and provides a major source of      employment, especially for women.

          Division of Labor.      

Formal  sector jobs, especially within the public service, are strictly      allocated  on the basis of educational attainment and paper qualifications.       Nevertheless, some ethnic divisions are noticeable. Northerners,      especially  Mossi, and Togolese hold the more menial positions. Hausa are      associated  with trade. Kwahu are also heavily engaged in trade and also      are the main  shopkeepers. Ga and Fante form the main fishing communities,      even along the  lakes and rivers removed from their coastal homelands. Age      divisions are of  some importance in the rural economy. Extended family      heads can expect  their junior brothers, sons, and nephews to assume the      major burdens of  manual labor.

      Social Stratification

          Classes and Castes.                       Ghana’s  stratification system follows both precolonial and modern      patterns. Most  traditional kingdoms were divided into three hereditary      classes: royals,  commoners, and slaves. The royals maintained exclusive      rights to fill the  central offices of king and, for Akan groups, queen      mother. Incumbents  acquired political and economic privileges, based on      state control over  foreign trade. Unlike European nobilities, however,      special status was  given only to office-holders and not their extended      families, and no  special monopoly over land

  A busy street in Kumasi. Ghana’s urban  centers are dominated  by European-style buildings, a reminder of its  British colonizers.           

was present.  Moreover, royals regularly married commoners, a consequence      of a rule of  lineage out-marriage. Freemen held a wide variety of rights,      including  unhampered control over farm land and control over subordinate      political  positions. Slavery occurred mainly as domestic bondage, in which      a slave  could command some rights, including the ability to marry a      nonslave and  acquire property. Slaves were also used by the state for      menial work such  as porterage and mining.

 

Slavery is no longer significant. Traditional royalties are still       recognized but have been superseded by Westernized elites. Contemporary       stratification is based on education and, to a lesser degree, wealth, both       of which have led to significant social mobility since independence.      Marked  wealth differences have also emerged, but have been moderated by      extended  family support obligations and the communal rights that most      Ghanaians hold  in land. Northerners, however, form a noticeable      underclass, occupying low  status jobs. Bukinabe and Togolese are      especially disadvantaged because, as  foreigners, they cannot acquire land.

          Symbols of Social Stratification.                       In traditional practice, kings and other hereditary officials marked       their status through the use of regalia, such as umbrellas and staves, and       the exclusive right to wear expensive clothing, such as kente cloth, and      to  consume and distribute special imported goods. In modern times,      expenditure  on Western consumer items has become the dominant status      marker. Clothing,  both expensive Western and traditional items, is an      important symbol of  education and wealth. Luxury cars are also      significant—a Mercedes-Benz is  the most dominant marker of high      rank. Status must also be demonstrated in  public display, especially in      lavish funerals that acclaim both the  deceased and their descendants.

      Political Life

          Government.                       Although Ghana’s  national government was originally founded on a      British parliamentary  model, the current constitution follows an American      tricameral system. The  country is a multiparty democracy organized under      an elected president, a  legislature, and an independent judiciary. It is      divided into ten  administrative regions, exclusively staffed from the      central government.  Regions are further subdivided into local districts,      organized under  district assemblies. The majority of assembly members are      elected, but some  seats are allocated to traditional hereditary rulers.      Chiefs also assume  the        major responsibility for traditional affairs, including stool land      transfers, and are significant actors in local political rituals. They are      also represented in the National House of Chiefs, which formulates general       policies on traditional issues.

          Leadership and Political Officials.                       Indigenous leaders assume hereditary positions but still must cultivate       family and popular support, since several candidates within a descent line       normally compete for leadership positions. Chiefs can also be deposed. On       the national level, Ghana has been under military rule for a good part of       its history, and army leadership has been determined by both rank and       internal politics. Civilian leaders have drawn support from a variety of       fronts. The first president, Nkrumah, developed a dramatic charisma and       gave voice to many unrepresented groups in colonial society. K. A. Busia,       who followed him after a military interregnum, represented the old guard       and also appealed to Ashanti nationalism. Hillal Limann, the third       president, identified himself as an Nkrumahist, acquiring power mainly       through the application of his professional diplomatic skills. Jerry       Rawlings, who led Ghana for 19 years, acquired power  initially through the      military and was able to capitalize on his position  to prevail in civil      elections in 1992 and 1996. He stepped down in 2000,  and his party was      defeated by the opposition, led by John Kufuor.

Ghana has seven political parties. Rawlings National Democratic Party  is      philosophically leftist and advocates strong central government,       nationalism and pan-Africanism. However, during the major portion of its       rule it followed a cautious economic approach and initiated a World Bank       structural adjustment, liberalization, and privatization program. The       current ruling party (as of 2001) is the New Patriotic Party. It has       assumed the mantle of the Busia regime and intends to pursue a more       conservative political and economic agenda than the previous regime.

Secular politicians are dependent upon the electorate and are easily      approachable without elaborate ceremony. Administrators in the public       service, however, can be quite aloof. Traditional Akan chiefs and kings      are  formally invested with quasi-religious status. Their subjects must      greet  them by prostrating themselves and may talk to them only indirectly      through  the chief’s “linguist.”

          Social Problems and Control.                       The Ghanaian legal system is a mixture of British law, applicable to       criminal cases, and indigenous custom for civil cases. The formal system      is  organized under an independent judiciary headed by a supreme court. Its       independence, however, has sometimes been compromised by political       interference, and, during Rawling’s military rule, by the      establishment of  separate public tribunals for special cases involving      political figures.  These excesses have since been moderated, although the      tribunal system  remains in place under the control of the Chief Justice.      Civil cases that  concern customary matters, such as land, inheritance, and      marriage, are  usually heard by a traditional chief. Both criminal and      civil laws are  enforced by a national police force.

People are generally wary of the judicial system, which can involve      substantial costs and unpredictable outcomes. They usually attempt to       handle infractions and resolve disputes informally through personal appeal       and mediation. Strong extended family ties tend to exercise a restraint on       deviant behavior, and family meetings are often called to settle problems       before they become public. Marital disputes are normally resolved by      having  the couple meet with the wife’s uncle or father, who will      take on the role  of a marriage counselor and reunite the parties.

Partially because of the effective informal controls, the level of  violent      crime is low. Theft is the most common infraction. Smuggling is  also      rampant, but is not often prosecuted since smugglers regularly bribe      police or customs agents.

          Military Activity.                       Ghana’s  military, composed of about eight thousand members,      includes an army and a  subordinate navy and air force. There is also the      People’s Militia,  responsible for controlling civil disturbances,      and a presidential guard.  Government support for these services is      maintained at approximately 1  percent of GDP. The army leadership has      demonstrated a consistent history  of coups and formed the national      government for approximately half of the  time that the country has been      independent. Ghana has not been involved in  any wars since World War II      and has not suffered any civil violence except  for a few localized ethnic      and sectarian skirmishes. It has participated in  peacekeeping operations,      though the United Nations, the Organization of  African Unity, and the West      African Community. The most recent  interventions have been in Liberia and      Sierra Leone.

      Social Welfare and Change Programs

Ghana is a low income country with a per capita GDP of only $400 (U.S.)      per year. It has many economic and social problems especially in the areas      of employment, housing, health, and sanitation.

            Painted huts enclose a courtyard where a  woman weaves mats from            millet stalks. Such courtyards serve as the  primary focus of            domestic activity.          

The major thrust of development policy since 1985 has the  World      Bank–supported Economic Recovery Program, a structural adjustment      strategy to liberalize macroeconomic policy. The core initiatives have       been expansion and diversification of export production, reduction of       government expenditures, especially in the public service, and       privatization of state industries. As part of this program, the government       instituted a special project to address the attendant social costs of      these  policies. It involved attempts to increase employment through public      works  and private-sector expansion, supported by business loans to      small-scale  entrepreneurs and laid-off public servants. Women were      particularly  targeted as beneficiaries.

 

      Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Ghana has an active Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) sector, with  over      900 registered organizations that participate in welfare and  development      projects in health, education, microfinancing, women’s status,      family planning, child care, and numerous other areas. The longest       standing groups have been church-based organizations and the Red Cross.       Most are supported by foreign donors. Urban voluntary associations, such      as  ethnic and occupational unions, also offer important social and      economic  assistance.

      Gender Roles and Statuses

          Division of Labor by Gender.                       Gender division varies across different ethnic groups. Among the Akan,       women assume the basic domestic and childcare roles. Both genders assume       responsibility for basic agriculture production, although men undertake      the  more laborious tasks and women the more repetitive ones. Women will      work on  their husbands’ farms but will also farm on their own.      Traditional craft  production is divided according to gender. Men are      weavers, carvers, and  metalworkers. Women make pottery and engage in food      processing. Petty  trade, which is a pervasive economic activity, is almost      exclusively a  woman’s occupation. Women independently control any      money that they receive  from their own endeavors, even though their      husbands normally provide the  capital funding. Wives, however, assume the      main work and financial  responsibility for feeding their husbands and      children and for other  child-care expenses.

Akan women also assume important social, political, and ritual roles.      Within the lineage and extended family, female elders assume authority,       predominantly over other women. The oldest women are considered to be the       ablest advisers and the repositories of family histories.

Among the Ga and Adangme, women are similarly responsible for domestic      chores. They do not do any farmwork, however, and are heavily engaged in      petty trade. Ga women are especially prominent traders as they control a       major portion of the domestic fish industry and the general wholesale      trade  for Accra, a Ga homeland. Northern and Ewe women, on the other hand,      have  fewer commercial opportunities and assume heavier agricultural       responsibilities in addition to their housekeeping chores.

          The Relative Status of Women and Men.                       In traditional society, women had considerable economic and political       powers which derived in part from their ability to control their own      income  and property without male oversight. Among the matrilineal Akan      they also  regularly assumed high statuses within the lineage and the      kingdom, even  though their authority was often confined to women’s      affairs. Colonialism and modernization has changed women’s position      in complex ways. Women have retained and expanded their trading       opportunities and can sometimes acquire great wealth through their       businesses. Men have received wider educational opportunities, however,      and  are better represented in government and formal sector employment. A      modest  women’s movement has developed to address gender differences      and advance  women’s causes.

      Marriage, Family, and Kinship

          Marriage.                       Tradition dictates  that family elders arrange the marriages of their      dependents. People are  not allow to marry within their lineages, or for      the Akan, their wider clan  groups. There is a preference, however, for      marriage between cross-cousins  (children of a brother and sister). The      groom’s family is expected to pay a  bride-price. Polygyny is      allowed and attests to the wealth and power of men  who can support more      than one wife. Chiefs mark their status by marrying  dozens of women.      Having children is the most important focus of marriage  and a husband will      normally divorce an infertile wife. Divorce is easily  obtained and      widespread, as is remarriage. Upon a husband’s death, his wife  is      expected to marry his brother, who also assumes responsibility for any      children.

The spread of Western values and a cash economy have modified customary      marriage patterns. Christians are expected to have only one wife. Monogamy      is further supported by the ability of men to marry earlier than they       could in traditional society because of employment and income      opportunities  in the modern sector. Young men and women have also been      granted greater  latitude to choose whom they marry. Accordingly, the      incidence of both  polygyny and cousin marriage is low. There is, however,      a preference for  marriages within ethnic groups, especially between people      from the same  town of origin.

          Domestic Unit.                       The basic  household group is formed on a complex set of traditional and      contemporary  forces. Akan custom allows for a variety of forms. The      standard seems to  have been natalocal, a system in which each spouse      remained with his or her  family of origin after marriage. Children would      remain with their mothers  and residential units would consist of      generations of brothers, sisters,  and sisters’ children. Wives,      however, would be linked to their husbands  economically. Men were supposed      to provide support funds and women were  supposed to cook for their      husbands. Alternative forms were also present  including avunculocal      residence, in which a man would reside with his  mother’s brother      upon adulthood, and patrilocality, in which children would  simply remain      with their fathers upon adulthood. In all of these  arrangements men would      assume the basic role of household head, but women  had some power      especially if they were elderly and had many younger women  under their      authority.

The Akan domestic arrangements are based on matrilineal principles. All      other Ghanaian ethnic groups are patrilineal and tend toward patrilocal      residence. The Ga, however, have developed an interesting pattern of       gender separation. Men within a lineage would live in one structure, and       their wives and unmarried female relatives would live in a nearby one. In       the north, patrilocal forms were complicated by a high incidence of       polygynous marriage. A man would assign a separate hut to each of his       wives, and, after their sons married, to each of their wives. The man      would  act has household head but delegate much of the domestic management      to his  wives, especially senior wives with several daughters-in-law.

Modern forces have influenced changes in domestic forms. Western  values,      wage employment, and geographical mobility have led to smaller and  more      flexible households. Nuclear families are now more numerous. Extended      family units are still the rule, but they tend to include relatives on an      ad hoc basis rather than according to a fixed residence rule.

            A Fanti chief. Elaborate regalia are a  hallmark of traditional kings            and officials.          

Sibling bonds are strong, and household heads will often  include younger      brothers and sisters and nieces and nephews from either  side of the family      within their domestic units. They may also engage  resident domestic help,      who are often relatives but may come from other  families. Important      economic bonds continue to unite extended kin who live  in separate      physical dwellings but still share responsibilities to assist  one another      and sometimes engage in joint enterprises.

 

          Inheritance.                       Most Ghanaian  inheritance systems share two features: a distinction      between family and  individual property and a preference for siblings over      children as heirs.  Among the matrilineal Akan, family property is      inherited without  subdivision, in the first instance by the oldest      surviving brother. When  the whole generation of siblings dies out, the      estate then goes to the  eldest sister’s eldest son. Women can also      inherit, but there is a  preference for men’s property to pass on to      other men and women’s to other  women. Private property can be      passed on to wives and children of the  deceased through an oral or written      will. In most cases, it will be divided  equally among wives, children, and      matrilineal family members. Private  property passed on to a child remains      private. If it is inherited within  the matrilineage, it becomes family      property. Among patrilineal groups,  sibling inheritance applies as well,      but the heir will be expected to  support the children of the deceased. If      he assumes responsibility for  several adult nephews he will invariably      share the estate with them.

          Kin Groups.                   

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