How bad is pink slime? Are free-range chickens happier? Can robots cook? Jayson Lusk of Oklahoma State University and the author of Unnaturally Delicious talks with EconTalk host Russ Roberts about these questions and more from his new book. Lusk explores the wide-ranging application of technology to farming, cooking, protein production, and more.
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Readings and Links related to this podcast episode
Related Readings
HIDE READINGS
This week's guest:
Jayson Lusk's Home page
This week's focus:
Unnaturally Delicious: How Science and Technology Are Serving Up Super Foods to Save the World, by Jayson Lusk on Amazon.com.
Additional ideas and people mentioned in this podcast episode:
"Effective Altruism and the Meat Eater Problem" by Jayson Lusk.
Chicken raising:
Hen Cameras. J. S. West.
"What the worst bird flu outbreak in U.S. history means for farms," by Erika Fry. Fortune, June 25, 3015.
"Meet the Robotic Chef That Can Prepare Your Dinner" by Megan Gibson. Time.com.
3-D Printing:
"Eat Your 3D Prints" by Ping Fu. Makezine.com.
Chris Anderson on Makers and Manufacturing. EconTalk. December 2012.
Fertilizers and crop management
Haber Process. Wikipedia. Nitrogen, fertilizer, Nobelists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch.
SST Software. Harvest data management.
Thomas Robert Malthus. Biography. Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Population: reproductive versus food increases.Jesse Ausubel on Agriculture, Technology, and the Return of Nature. EconTalk. August 2015.
"The Locavore's Dilemma: Why Pineapples Shouldn't Be Grown in North Dakota," by Jayson L. Lusk and F. Bailey Norwood. Library of Economics and Liberty, Jan. 3, 2011.
A few more readings and background resources:
Brassica Oleracea. Wikipedia. Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale.
History of the Potato. Wikipedia. Discussion of potato introduction to Europe.
Innovation, by Timothy Sandefur. Concise Encyclopedia of Economics.
A few more EconTalk podcast episodes:
Roger Berkowitz on Fish, Food, and Legal Sea Foods. EconTalk. August 2015.
Greg Page on Food, Agriculture, and Cargill. EconTalk. January 2015.
Rachel Laudan on the History of Food and Cuisine. EconTalk. August 2015.
Nassim Nicholas Taleb on the Precautionary Principle and Genetically Modified Organisms. EconTalk. January 2015.
Highlights
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Podcast Episode Highlights
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0:33
Intro. [Recording date: March 3, 2016.] Russ: Now, this book champions a pretty optimistic view of how technology and science are changing our food for the better. And, not everyone agrees with that. One of your defenses of that position is that it's a very old story. How so? Guest: Well, actually if we look at a lot of things we enjoy about our food system today, if we took a step back and thought about them, we would probably see that there actually were advances at some point in the past, whether it's a hundred years ago or thousands of years ago. So, a lot of our ancient foods--wine, vinegar--these things were technologies at a time. Somehow our ancestors figured out if they wanted to preserve items, if the kept them in certain ways, they wouldn't spoil as quickly, would taste a little better. And, you know, a lot of the plants and animals we have around us didn't exist anything like the form that we see them today, even a thousand years ago. So, something like corn, for example, the ancestor of corn was probably about the size of your thumb. And it was only through selective breeding--not always purposeful-- Russ: You are not talking about the corn kernel. You are talking about the whole cob, the whole thing. Guest: Exactly right. Yeah. And to give the listeners a bit of a perspective, a modern day ear of corn would be about, probably the size of your forearm--about the size of a foot. And so the modern ancestor of that, several thousand years ago, was about the size of your thumb. So that change that happened was because our ancestors picked the bigger ones; they kept those around, traveled with them, ate the ones that were a little tastier. And then of course we've used more sophisticated technologies. But, um, the more recent one with corn is hybrid breeding technologies. And that happened in the early 1900s. And if you look at a trend of, say, corn yields, that innovation that learning that if we were very specific about which strains of corn we crossed with another just led to an incredible increase in the amount of food we could get for each acre of land. So we've been modifying the food we've been eating since the beginning. Russ: Well, you say here--I was rather shocked, and pleasantly surprised, to learn that broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels's sprouts, and kale didn't exist before humans came along? Where did they come from? Guest: Yeah. There's an ancient weed, essentially, a plant. You can google it and find it. It just sort of looks like an unruly plant. And over time people took that same plant and selected it in different ways. So, some people focused more on the little flowers and tried to get them to grow productively, and that turned them into broccoli. Other people focused on other parts--the leaves, tried to get the leaves to grow bigger. That turned into the version of kale we have now. And then, you know, just different people doing different things with that same plant led it to cauliflower and to Brussels sprouts. It's absolutely incredible. Of course this wasn't biotech or GMO (Genetically Engineered Organisms) kind of stuff. These were just people trying to adapt and sometimes, probably not even all that purposefully, were using plants in all these ways that led to the outcomes we see today. And that's not a unique story. It's a story that is true for most of our modern foodstuffs.
Russ: Now, a lot of people would argue that that's okay; that was then; this is now. And those older types of changes that we made, those were "natural changes" through breeding and standard methods. A lot of people are very worried or scared about what we're doing to food these days. We're going to talk about some of those techniques, some of the applications of science and technology. But just as a starting point: What would you say to people who are concerned about playing God with our food supply? Guest: That is a question I get a lot. And sometimes it takes the form of: 'I just want food the way God gave it to us.' You know, as we've already been talking about here, the trouble is there's no 'there' there. Which state of nature are we really talking about, the one 10,000 years ago, the one a thousand years ago? Because we've really had a constant evolution in food, that we've had. And I suppose one answer to your question is to say that people probably always have been a little skeptical of new foods. It's not necessarily a modern phenomenon. So, there's some great stories about when the potato was introduced in Europe that people were sort of disgusted by it. Some people thought it looked like long fingers growing and didn't want to eat it. And of course you can see that even into our more modern world that there was a lot of aversion to things like pasteurization. Or even microwaves, for example. So there is I think a natural human tendency to be a little skeptical of new foodstuffs. And that probably comes from our history. Because humans had to be cautious about what we ate. I think Michael Pollan calls it the Omnivore's Dilemma--we have got to be careful about what we are eating, but we also have to be adventurous enough to find new things and keep ourselves alive. And so, yes, we are concerned about a lot of the new food innovations. But I don't think that concern is necessarily new. There's probably some dimensions to it that are new and different. And I don't think that's necessarily a bad thing: it's a natural human tendency. But one of the things I'm trying to do in this book and my other writings is, put that emotional gut reaction to the side and let's look a little at the evidence. And you don't have to take a new technology just on blind faith. But, you know, let's look and see what the science has to say about it, and use the best information we have to see whether something we might want to use.
6:53
Russ: We'll come back to some of those issues at the end. Let's start and look at some of the things you are talking about in the book. Really a fascinating and delightful book about some of the things that are going on in the food world. Some of them will scare some people, I suspect. Some of them will amaze folks. So I want to start with chickens, which is something I've always enjoyed thinking and reading about. I'm not sure why. But I am always fascinated by the incredible productivity of the American poultry industry. And you write, "In 2014 the United States was home to more than 300 million hens, who laid 86.9 billion eggs for our dinner table. Add it all up and the average American ate about 260 eggs last year--an amount roughly equal to what a single chicken lays in a year." And that's an American chicken, of course. In the less developed parts of the world, chickens are less productive, which is in itself also interesting. And those are just egg-layers. Of course, for eating of chickens, there's something over a billion chickens alive right now. Last time I looked, there's about 4 chickens for every person being raised for their dining pleasure. And one of the things people worry about, especially egg-laying chickens: they are typically raised and live in cages with very little freedom, very little opportunity to experience whatever a chicken experiences in a different world, a wilder world, if that exists. And a lot of people are upset about that, and promote free-range chickens, and other solutions. So, what do you think of these concerns? And what has happened in some of the--what are some of the innovations people have done to respond to those concerns? Guest: Well, the first thing I'd say about concerns about animal welfare: they are certainly valid concerns. They are legitimate and they are things that we probably want to think about and worry a little about. The trouble with, and this is true of so many, you know, of life's pressing problems is that the answers aren't nearly as easy as they might first seem. And there are lots of really tough tradeoffs when it comes to thinking about really tough issues like animal welfare. And there is kind of a common view in which food and agriculture was great in the 1940s and 1950s, we had all these free range chickens running around and small diversified farms; and man, if we could just get ourselves back there we'd be a lot better off. But the world we see today is a result, yes, of a lot of technology changes. And we think about the question: Why would these farmers start bringing chickens indoors in the first place? Well, you know, chickens don't like to be outside when it's hot or cold any more than you and I like to. So, farmers learned that if they brought them inside they could protect them from weather. The other thing it did is it protected them from a lot of diseases. And surely people are familiar with the bird flu epidemic that hit the United States last year--it killed millions of chickens. And that happened because of contact with wild birds. So, you bring the animals indoors, at least it helps protect a little bit against some of those problems. And then we can start feeding them more specialized diets, and make them more productive, and picking better genetics. So, this wasn't some evil plot to be mean to chickens, but sort of the evolved process that led to this point where--and the driver ultimately isn't some big evil corporation, but I think it's often you and I, the food consumer. When we went in the grocery store and we saw a lesser-price alternative, we typically went for it. And that competitive pressure led to the sort of outcomes we see today. And I think the difficult question is: What are the alternatives and what can we do about it? And throughout this book I often will draw a contrast of what are two ways of dealing with problems. Probably the most popular method--at least the one with the cultural cache today--is a sort of romantic traditionalism method. So the answer is: If we don't like all these chickens in cages today, let's just go back to the way we did it in the 1950s. Open the doors; let the chickens run wild. And there are some merits to that approach. Russ: People are doing it. People are doing it in their own backyards. Guest: Oh, they sure are. In fact, one of my neighbors in fact has some outdoor chickens, so I get to see them pretty frequently when I go for walks in my neighborhood. And so, yeah, it is taking on--that's great; people like doing that. And actually those kinds of eggs can be a little tastier, because the animals get a little, get a more diversified diet. But especially when you look at those statistics you quoted about, just the volume of egg production in the United States--it's really incredible. I think most people don't really realize how many eggs they are eating a year and how many animals it takes to produce those. And so to imagine going in the world we are in today to one where everything was grown in that kind of production system is really hard to imagine. It could be done, but eggs would be, certainly, a lot more expensive. And we'd need a lot more land to do that. And so, the other kind of alternative model is there are some technologies: there are some changes we can think about in terms of new technologies or even new economic approaches that might lead to better outcomes. So, most people if they go in the grocery store today--you can buy cage-free eggs. There's no label on it. It's probably eggs from chickens that were living in these small cages: people call them battery cages. Or you might see cage-free eggs. And those are typically the alternatives that are presented to us in the grocery store. There are organic eggs, which are essentially cage-free. And those cage-free eggs, we have a lot of ideas about what that means. But the reality probably isn't what most people think it is. It's just a very large barn where the chickens essentially have the ability to roam around wherever they want. And the advantage of that over the cage system is the animals have more freedom of movement, and they can exhibit some of their natural behaviors like scratching in the dust and doing the things that chickens have natural urges to do. But the thing a lot of people don't realize is there are a lot of real downsides to that sort of production system, too. There tends to be--it's not always the case--higher mortality rates: so the hens die a lot more in those systems. When you think about animal welfare, dying is about the worst it can get. And one of the reasons they die is because of this thing called the pecking order: it's a real life thing. A lot of chickens together that don't know each other, they are going to compete for dominance. And so they'll peck on each other; and that causes some problems. And the other issue, there, too, is there's just a lot of--it's a really dirty, dusty place in a lot of these open barn systems. And that affects the chickens' healths, but also affects the workers' healths. So you are again back to this tough issue of tradeoffs. We'd really like these chickens to have more room, but when we give them more room, they fight with each other; they tend to die at a little faster rate; and it creates these environments that are really smelly and dusty. And so that--you know, I'm not advocating for one type of system over another, but it's a tough tradeoff. And so one of the things I ask in the book is: Is there a way through this tradeoff? Can either technological development or development in--talk about an economic development, even, that you might use to get us into a better position?
14:21
Russ: And so, talk about--is it J. S. West, is that the name of the company? Guest: Yeah. This is a company in California, a very large egg producer out in California. And there's some interesting politics in California because back in 2008, on the ballot initiative was, before the voters in that state, they essentially voted to ban these--not gestation crates, that's for pigs--to ban the battery cages for chickens. And so the producers out in California were stuck having to figure out what they were going to do next. And they knew about the cage free systems and a lot of them did that. But it wasn't clear that was going to be the best alternative. And so as it turns out there have been some researchers in Europe working on this problem for a number of years, and there's sort of an innovative compromise between this cage system and this cage-free system. And it's a type of cage called an enriched cage, or a colony cage--it goes by a variety of different names. But it's an attempt to try to combine the advantages of these two systems. And so, what it is, is essentially a much larger cage--probably about the size of a king-sized mattress. It's about that large. And it's got quite a few birds in it--probably 50-60 birds in there. But they've got a lot more freedom of movement, so they can move around a lot more. And it has some amenities that aren't there in those tight battery cages. So, there are perches the birds can get up on. There's a little area where they can dust-bathe. Russ: Woo hoo! [?] Guest: Yeah. Exactly. Russ: [?] a dust bath to [?] Guest: And there is a little area where they can lay their eggs in a nest. You know, it's not surprising, but the hens like to have a little privacy when they are laying their eggs. And so, even though they've got this big cage, they almost always go in that nest area where it's a little secluded to lay their eggs. But, you don't have this situation where there's thousands upon thousands of birds in this big open barn. So the sort of pecking issues are not nearly as problematic. It's still there but it's not as big an issue. And you don't have nearly the dust problems, and the particulate matter, emission problems, that are there in the cage system. So it's an innovative compromise. It's also a compromise in terms of cost. If you look at the cost of production, it's somewhere between that cage system and that cage-free system. And so, you know, it's a new technology: it's something that scientists, animal welfare scientists were working on for years as a way to try to think about ways of making chickens' lives better while not increasing our food budget too much. Russ: So, the coolest thing about this--we'll put a link up to it--is you can actually watch the chickens live, on camera. The company wants to be transparent. And the thing you notice is that they are still pretty crowded together. The other thing you notice is something I've heard from agricultural people as well, which is: Chickens are really nervous. They don't really take advantage of--they are not lounging around, taking advantage of a little extra space. They are just nervous creatures. They are very busy. Guest: They are. When you walk into one of these barns, when a human comes in, they know it. And they move around. And, exactly: they are a little neurotic, perhaps. Russ: Who knows? Perhaps. They could be very relaxed inside, serene as can be. Guest: The one thing I would say, though, is--yeah, you are right. I think it is awesome that a company like this gives the transparency to let the consumers see what they are doing for their own selves. And some people are kind of surprised by it: They think, 'Wow, I didn't realize the conditions were so small,' or what have you. But, what I would contrast that, though, against, is not your romantic ideal of what free range chickens are; rather the reality of what free range chickens are. Russ: Yeah. I always say the romantic ideal is a chicken from, like, "The Sound of Music"--leaping across the valley or the mountainside singing joyously in their freedom. And that's not what they are. Guest: No. In fact, just as a little anecdote, I will often teach at summer school in Italy in the summers. And a couple of years ago, a student in the class, his family ran a farm nearby; and he said, 'Would you like to go see my family's farm?' And I said, 'Oh, that would be awesome. That would be great.' It's just the idyllic sort of small Italian family farm that you might think of, had some, you know, had a little winery there, and they had some cows. And they had some free-range chickens. And where were those free range chickens? Where do they love to be? On the manure pile they kept right outside of where they kept the barn with the cattle. And you know, a lot of those chickens didn't look very good, either: they were being pecked on by others. But that's what free range is. And so when we look online at, say, J.S. West operation, we don't want to compare it, as you say, to "The Sound of Music," or whatever chicken. We want to compare it to the real life free range chicken. Russ: And they also have, of course--they are more likely to get parasites. It's a tough life being a chicken, in a battery cage or outside a battery cage. We'll just leave it at that.
19:54
Russ: Let's move on to 3-D food printing and the robot chef. Because that's really some amazing stuff going on there. Particularly the robot chef. Guest: It is. I saw a little, just a small excerpt in a sort of industrial magazine about this company that had come to a trade show and introduced this robotic chef, and I thought, 'Man, I have to learn about this. It sounds really interesting.' So, fortunately I was able to get in touch with the maker. So, I'll talk about the robot chef first. This is not a robot on like, say, "The Jetsons" where they are moving around talking to you. It's sort of a--think about a large kitchen cabinet almost that has robot arms attached to the top. And these arms can move backwards and forwards and they can grab things, but they are sort of placed above a kitchen stove with, you know, microwave and other things near it. But the really interesting thing about how this works, is they take chefs--in the case of this Moley Robotics, they took the winner of the British show "Top Chef" and asked him if he'd put sensors on his arms while he was preparing a meal. And so the computers are recording his every movement as he is preparing his dish. And then they can translate his movements--they can essentially program the robot to mimic those movements in every way of the chef. For me, the really cool thing about that is, I'm a little bit of a foodie myself; I like to eat nice food and go to nice restaurants; but sometimes it's expensive. Sometimes I've tried to make the same dishes that some of the celebrity chefs do in their restaurants, with varying degrees of success. But the cool thing about this is, if it's the sensors attached to these chefs' arms, we're getting an exact replica of what they would do if they were in our homes. Russ: It's so cool. It reminds me--two things it reminds me of, one is Andy Serkis who plays, in the Planet of the Apes he wires himself up and acts and it gets transformed into this animatronic creature that has his facial expressions. It's an incredible, very similar thing. The other thing it reminds me of in a much milder way is Ratatouille where you have the rat up under the hat of the chef who doesn't know what he's doing, but he's basically steering him; and that's what this is. There's an algorithm reproducing what a great chef in theory would be--did, literally. Not 'would do' but did. Guest: Yeah. In the same way from that movie Ratatouille that the chef was able to pull a fast one over his diners by thinking he was the one creating this great meal, we could do that for our friends and family: 'Look at this great meal I've prepared.' All the while we've got some robot in the back room doing it for us. But yeah, I think that's just a fascinating technology. It's not on the markets yet, so it's something that's still in development. But I think they hope to have some models ready for sale in 2017. Whether this takes off or not, it's hard to tell. But it's certainly a really cool idea. And it's a really cool idea when we think, again, about our past with food. Because if we go back, even 50 years, think about your mom or your grandmother and how much time they spent in the kitchen. And there's just been incredible change over time. Part of it is social norms. So, we men are sort of expected to help out a little more in the kitchen. That's probably a good thing. But a lot of it is just technology differences. And you can see it in these time-use surveys that try to monitor how people are spending their time throughout the day. The average woman today spends half as much time in food preparation, about a hundred--80-100% less time in meal cleanup. That is amazing. Those aren't chores, especially the meal cleanup part, that really anybody likes. Cooking, we might like. But often when I cook it's on my own terms. But there can be a little drudgery to it if we have to do it every day, day in and day out, especially we're shuttling the kids to soccer and trying to make meetings and all those sorts of things. And so the ability to turn those jobs over to a robot or for food processors to give us foods that are more convenient, it's really, I think, really increase the quality of life. Russ: Well, you'd think the next step would just be a box--a quote--we call a Cuisinart a "food processor". But what we really want is a food processor where you just open a drawer, you put in a bunch of ingredients, you call up the right recipe, and it does all the things inside the box. Right? It's sort of like a robotic surgeon but you don't have to have anybody guiding the arms. You'd think that would just be the future. Right? Guest: What we really want is the Star Trek food replicator, where Captain Kirk just pushes a button and you've got something waiting for you right there. That's the ideal. That doesn't mean people can't cook if they want to-- Russ: I use a fountain pen. Guest: Exactly. Russ: Now and then. Not often. I wish I had more reason to. I'm trying to think of reasons to use my fountain pen. I'm enjoying the tactile thrill of old-fashioned writing. The 3D Printing--it's kind of Captain Kirk-y. Guest: It is. It's moving in that direction. It's not all the way there. But it's a step in that direction. So, there have been scientists working--there are some researchers working both at Cornell and at Columbia that have been working on this for probably 10 years now. And so, people have probably seen the 3D food printers that print things in plastic. Again, you give it some shape or some figurine and it can replicate that. And the 3-D food printer works in a similar way, but instead of dealing in plastics it's dealing in foodstuffs. And it's really interesting. A lot of the applications today are frankly with things like chocolate which are easily moldable and that you can sort of melt and get into a more liquid state, and it will dry up. But they are moving a lot of other directions, too. And I think, one of the interesting stories is that one of the first people to print a 3-D printed food was a high school girl for her science fair project: that she got her hands on one of these printers that the folks at Cornell were putting out and she affixed a chocolate, a device that would squeeze out the chocolate in just the right proportions. And she won her science fair; and I think they've taken the idea and run with it, in a lot of different ways. So, like, for example, Hershey has a variety that can make these really interesting chocolate creations: you can print a piece of chocolate in your name, or in almost the shape of a jungle gym, if you will. There are other varieties of this that print in sugar--I'm not 100% sure how they work, but you've got one nozzle that's pushing out sugar and the other that's pushing out water and it's crystallizing that sugar. Russ: Cool. Guest: Yeah. You can look at pictures online. They're really artistic creations more than anything else. But there is some serious food being made there as well. I think the Culinary Institute of America has bought one. And anything that can be made, again, into something a little softer can be printed. And so, pastas for example are being made; pastas stuffed with any variety of things that can be put inside of a pasta. Cheeses are being printed. These are, I think, interesting ideas. I think one of the more interesting parts of it is this idea of customizability. So, when you think about printing you might think this is some kind of evil, processed food. But processed food--one of the characteristics of a processed food is that it's just homogenous. It's all the same for everybody. And at least the hope for something like 3-D printing is that, you know, Russ you can have your cookie with your initials printed on it, and I can have mine with my initials on it. And it's not just the look of it, but it's also the content. So, if you want a little more Vitamin A and I want a little more calcium, I can do those. In fact, we might even be able to put whatever medication we need, whether it's allergy medication or your cholesterol pill, perhaps we can have this sort of personalized pharmaceuticals in our granola bar when we print it in the morning. So this whole idea of customizability and uniqueness is a really interesting twist I think, that one can put on this idea that otherwise can be considered some kind of processed food.
28:40
Russ: Let's move on to a slightly more controversial and maybe important area, which is fertilizer. One of the things I thought about when reading your book is what a great word, 'fertilizer' is. I never think about it. It makes the land more fertile. I'm going to read some statistics here on cost that you write about that I was fascinated to read. You say,
For example, in 2014, a central Illinois corn farmer was likely to spend $173 per year on fertilizer and $66 per acre on pesticides, even on highly productive farmland. All that was on top of the $119 per acre the farmer paid for seed. Of all the nonland costs associated with growing corn in Illinois, about 30% are tied up in fertilizer.
And you give a lot of other examples. But a lot of people complain that we've, through overplanting and overfarming we've drained soil of its nutrients and we have to use these artificial fertilizer methods. Talk about what's your assessment of that argument and what's going on to try to reduce the amount of fertilizer and still keep yields high. Guest: So, I think there are some real concerns. There are some concerns about over-application of fertilizer. As you mention, it's not inexpensive, particularly in the years I cited there like 2014: fertilizer prices are going to vary quite a bit with oil and gas prices. But yeah, they are costly. So, farmers aren't just putting the stuff on the land because it's cheap. But it can act as a little bit of insurance. So, if I didn't get enough rain, I might want to fertilize there to make sure I boost yields enough. So, the trouble is, though, when fertilizer runs off it can get into our waterways, and it can create these dead zones because it encourages the growth of algae and bacteria that can consume all the oxygen in the water. So, these are real concerns. I think the challenging question is: What are we going to do about it? Are we going to go back to these farms of the 1950s? Or is there something better that might be on the table? And when I look out there, I think most people have no idea the kind of sophistication and technology innovation that's happening on most commercial farms these days. It's really absolutely amazing. One thing I might do, if you don't mind, is take a little bit of a step back and just talk about really interesting study that's been going on for over 100 years here by the University of Oklahoma State-- Russ: Yeah, you wrote about it in the book. I loved that. Go ahead. Guest: So, people are worried about sustainability, and are we going to have enough food in the future given our current practices. And a really interesting example of that is that there was the first professor of agriculture at Oklahoma State University is hired in the 1890s. He started an experiment that runs to this day. And basically what he wanted to know is: What happens when I plow up this native prairie land and plant wheat and just do it year after year after year and never provide any additional fertilizer? So, he was very much interested in this question; and this kind of research is going on all across the country at various universities like mine. I just think it's a fascinating example and a way to illustrate--there are agronomists and soil scientists that have been interested in this stuff for a long time. And the interesting thing about that study is, if you look at the wheat yields from that study 120 years later, it's actually--we're actually getting more wheat than he did in the 1890s. And how is that possible? Even though he's never provided any more fertilizer. And the answer to that question is that they are planting new varieties of wheat on that land. So, better genetics. So, one way to think about that is that improvements in genetics have more than offset the losses in soil fertility. But the good news is we don't have to accept losses in soil fertility: we can add fertilizer to it. So, you know, the traditional form of fertilizer was manure. And so the amount of fertilizer was constrained by the amount of animals that we had around. And there was this really amazing discovery in the 1900s by a couple of German scientists, Haber and Bosch, and they learned how to pull nitrogen out of air. And that's the way we get most of our nitrogen today. And there's a lot of estimates out there; and again, this is the sort of thing that I think a lot of people don't think about: but the ability to extract that nitrogen out of the air allowed us to grow a lot more food. And there are some estimates that suggest that somewhere around 4 billion people on this earth today owe their very existence to the fact that these two German scientists were able to figure out how to get more nitrogen. So in other words, nitrogen has been the greatest limiting resource in agriculture, this fertilizer, throughout human history. Now we are this other problem: that now we have so much of it that we in some cases over-use it. So, how can we cut back in a responsible way? And so I talk about a couple of different examples. There is a company here out of Oklahoma called SST Technology that is sort of a precision agriculture company: they are a data management company. And what they allow farmers to do is to keep track of their farmland and keep data on the amount of nitrogen in the soil, in addition to the amount of water in the soil; and combine that with data on these yield monitors--most of the time farmers of any size today when they go through and harvest their corn or wheat or soybeans, they are calculating how much yield on every square meter, for example, as they go through that field. So, you get these really pretty maps of which areas of the field are yielding higher and which are yielding lower. And so this company I talk about in my book, and SST, is combining all this data in ways that are allowing farmers in ways that are allowing farmers to make really precise recommendations and fertilizer applications--so only applying fertilizer in those areas of the field that actually need it. And then, you know, not overapplying it in other areas that don't. And it's really cool technology. It's actually all cloud-based now. And agronomists can go in and use that software and make a recommendation: I want this much fertilizer in this area and this much in that other area. They send it up to the cloud and it comes down to the fertilizer applicator and it automatically makes adjustments as it's moving through that field. It's just really an incredible use of big data and modern technologies.
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Russ: Let's turn to meat. I'm a very eager eater of meat myself. My wife is a vegetarian. So we span some of the range of choices people make about their food habits in our one house. But a lot of people say, you know, 'Meat is inefficient. You take all this corn with all this great nutrient, of stuff, and you turn it into a cow--and the cow--it's just an inefficient way to get your calories. It contributes to global warming.' And a lot of people are upset about it. Now, of course there's two ways you could deal with it. You could encourage people to be vegetarians--which of course is going on all the time. And my wife fell prey to that--God bless her; I respect that choice. Seriously, though. I'm joking, a little bit--I think it's a great thing to be a vegetarian if you can be, mainly for moral reasons, not environment reasons. But I'm open to the possibility that it has environmental consequences I don't know about. What's your thought on this? And what are the possibilities of laboratory-grown meat, which you write about in your book and which is really interesting? Guest: Yeah. Well, there's a lot of issues that you brought up there. Let's take the first one about inefficiency. I hear this one a lot. One way it's sometimes put is, 'Feeding this corn to cows is just wasteful. It's like going down to your supermarket, buying 6 boxes of cornflakes, and throwing 5 of them away and only eating one.' I think that's a wrong way to think about it. One way I think about it is by using a little bit of an analogy. So, let's imagine we had some scientist. They are off searching for new plants. They head down to the Amazon [Amazon River--Econlib Ed.]; they find some brand new plant, never heard of before. And this plant is an incredible producer of calories. It pumps out the calories, given small amounts of fertilizer. But they get back to the lab and do some tests and find out: Oh, it's too bad; this new plant is toxic to humans; we can't eat it. But the scientist goes back to the lab and comes up with a machine that can take this new plant and convert it into food that's really great-tasting. Unfortunately this machine uses up energy. It takes a little bit of water. And it--you lose some of the calories in the process. Well, is this scientist a hero? Are they some kind of evil villain? I don't know. I think there's a lot of ways to think about this. We should really applaud this scientist for finding some really cheap way of producing calories and then turning it into something that we really want to eat. So, let's call this new plant 'corn.' And let's call that machine 'the cow.' And that's what we have. Most of us don't want to eat the corn that's grown directly in the field. Most of us--the corn, by the way, the corn that's grown is field corn. It's not the sort of sweet corn that we think about eating. And why do we grow this much corn and soybeans as much as another plant? It's because they are really efficient producers of calories and protein. But they deliver those calories and protein in a form that we don't typically like to eat. And also, the one nice thing about them is they are in a form that is easily transportable. So we can put them on trucks or on barges and send them across the world. So, they are great sources of calories and easily stored and transported; but they are just not very tasty. And so what we want to do is turn those into something that we like to eat. And you are exactly right: Most of us like to eat meat. And if you look at the data, probably at least 95% of the U.S. population are meat eaters. And I kind of agree with you: in a lot of ways I respect someone who can give up eating meat, because, boy, it sure would be hard for me. And I suspect for a lot of people, both for health reasons but also because it's just really tasty. We enjoy it. And we probably enjoy it because Mother Nature gave us some reasons to enjoy it. Most meat comes in a--it's packed full of vitamins and contains some fat that's good for our bodies and some things we couldn't get in other ways. So, yeah: if you want to look at it one way, you can say meat is wasteful. But if you look at it in another way, what cows do is they take one form of calories and convert them into another form that we like to eat. And, I should say: Most cows, throughout most of their lives, actually eat grass. [More to come, 40:13]