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ECDIS
ECDIS – An electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) is a geographic information system used for nautical navigation that complies with International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations as an alternative to paper nautical charts.
An ECDIS includes electronic navigational charts (ENC) and integrates position information from the Global Positioning System (GPS) and other navigational sensors, such as radar, fathometer and automatic identification systems (AIS). It may also display additional navigation-related information, such as sailing directions.
ECDIS provides a wide range of advantages. It makes the voyage planning easier – and can allow navigators to optimise time, speed and other parameters. It can also boost safety and make for better voyage planning by taking the ship’s draft into consideration when planning the route and combine this with dangerous areas or areas of special attention. ECDIS is required to be installed on all newbuild vessels with keels laid either on or after 1st July 2012. Existing vessels will be required to retrofit the system at the first survey after the dates outlined in the regulations depending on the vessel type and size. From 2018 all vessels will have ECDIS onboard. ECDIS can operate a variety of charts. The official charts are known as Electronic Navigational Charts (ENC) and Admiralty Raster Chart Service (ARCS). The charts are made and distributed by hydrographic offices through a distribution network and each vessel has to subscribe to a chart service.
With 2018 approaching, there are concerns, particularly as more of the bottom end of the market now has to have ECDIS onboard, that training and standards of crew will be a problem. The IMO has introduced a model course (1.27) which covers the operational use of ECDIS, and concentrates on the safe and efficient use of ECDIS at sea in a variety of conditions, from ocean passages to pilotages.
The majority of errors made on the Electronic Chart Display Information System (ECDIS) are in the user’s interpretation of how the ECDIS displays information. Sadly there have been instances of groundings and allision with fixed objects, which have been caused by ECDIS issues. These are likely to increase over time – unless training, skills and awareness are improved.
Videotel provides a training course for ECDIS, http://videotel.com/stcw-training-catalogue/maritime-training-courses/2000-ecdis-training-course which provides information on the background of ECDIS, the capabilities and functionality – and the limitations too. Aimed at deck officers it allows them to learn how to operate ECDIS for route planning and route monitoring, to analyse and interpret information, and seeks to make sure officers are confident in the operation of the systems.
Echo sounder
Echo Sounder – Echo sounding is a type of SONAR used to determine the depth of water by transmitting sound pulses into water. The time interval between emission and return of a pulse is recorded, which is used to determine the depth of water along with the speed of sound in water at the time.
An echo-sounder transmits a pulse of sound directly downwards from the bottom of the ship. The pulse of sound travels down through the water, bounces off the sea bed and then travels upwards until the reflection is heard by the echo-sounder.The echo-sounder times how long the pulse of sound takes to travel to the sea bed and back up to the ship.
The depth of the water can be calculated using the formula:
distance = time/2 x speed of sound in water
This translates into depth information is then typically used for navigation and safety of the vessel, so as to avoid going aground.
In 1922, the “USS Stewart” was equipped with a Hayes echo sounder, designed by Dr. Harvey Hayes of the U.S. Navy. In 1923, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Ship Guide was equipped with an echo sounder and proceeded to the North Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal and the west coast of Mexico.The development of echo sounding continued in the ensuing years. By 1925 Submarine Signal Corporation was producing improved echo-sounding devices called “fathometers”. The advent of World War II proved a boon to oceanography. New instruments were developed and others, such as the previously developed bathythermograph and modified versions of radio sono-buoys, came into widespread use as tools in submarine warfare.
The word sounding is used for all types of depth measurements, including those that don’t use sound, and is unrelated in origin to the word sound in the sense of noise or tones. . Indeed, “sounding” derives from the Old English “sund”, meaning swimming, water, sea; it is not related to the word sound in the sense of noise or tones.Depth sounding refers to the act of measuring depth, and was around long before echo sounders. Historically a sounding line or lead line is a length of thin rope with a plummet, generally of lead, at its end.Measuring the depth of water by lead and line dates back to ancient civilisation. Greek and Roman navigators are known to have used sounding leads, some of which have been uncovered by archaeologists.
At sea, in order to avoid repeatedly hauling in and measuring the wet line by stretching it out with one’s arms, it became traditional to tie marks at intervals along the line. These marks were made of leather, calico, serge and other materials, and so shaped and attached that it was possible to “read” them by eye during the day or by feel at night. The marks were at every second or third fathom, in a traditional order: at 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 13, 15, 17, and 20 fathoms. The “leadsman” called out the depth as he read it off the line. If the depth was at a mark he would call “by the mark” followed by the number, if the depth was between two marks, he would call “by the deep” followed by the estimated number.
Soundings were also taken to establish position, a navigation function then, rather than for safety alone. Soundings were usually taken using tallow coated leads with a wad of tallow in a hole at the bottom of the plummet. The tallow would bring up part of the bottom sediment (sand, pebbles, clay, shells, etc) and allow the ship’s officers to better estimate their position. If the plummet came up clean, it meant the bottom was rock. Nautical charts now provide information about the seabed materials at particular locations. The sailor in charge of taking the soundings was called a leadsmen’s, this role was important and physically demanding – they were called on to throw heavy weights into the sea and then haul them up at frequent intervals. Sometimes, they decided to simply pretend to throw the line in – they would be considered to be “swinging the lead” – which has become a euphemism for laziness or shirking a duty.
Engines
Engines – For centuries ships used either human or wind power to move – everyone from the Romans and Greeks, through to even Spanish galleons and even Nelson, all were dependent on the vagaries of organic power.
Then suddenly the late 19th century began to see the first breakthroughs and ships could be propelled and powered. Then in the 20th century fully gave way to steam, and marine engines began to get serious.
The first real attempt at powered propulsion was as far back as 1673 – based on the power of cannonballs and the thrust they provide when fired. Dutch man Christian Huygens rigged a cannon but replaced the ball with a piston – and suddenly thrust was available. Sadly the idea didn’t progress, as there was no fuel suitable. From around 1736 to 1804, there were many different ways of harnessing steam power used – and then in 1825 ‘Curacao’ built in Dover, England, became the first practical steamship to sail. The 445 tonnes, paddle-wheeler had two engines developing 75 kW.
Progress and refinement continued, and in 1880 the 137 meter, 5,247 tonnes ‘Arizona’ was the first steam powered vessel to win the mythical “Blue Riband”. Steam was surpassing sail, finally. The White Star Line steel hulled ship reached 17.3 knots with her John Elder & Company’s 4,679 kW compound steam engines. Paddle steamers were falling out of favour and in 1884 the first bronze manganese propeller was produced – heralding a new age, and one which is almost recognisable today. Fuel was still an issue – and in 1904 Sulzer installed their first diesel engine in a ship, the freighter ‘Venoge’. However, for scale and power it was still coal and steam which were the rage.
The triple-screw steamer “Titanic” was propelled by a combined machinery arrangement consisting of two reciprocating engines and a single Parsons’ turbine. The Titanic burned coal to make steam, and the total bunker capacity was some 6611 tons of coal. To work the 24 double-ended boilers while at sea during a four-hour watch period required 48 firemen, 20 trimmers, and 5 leading firemen, sometimes called leading stokers.
Both the First and second World Wars saw great technological leaps, and suddenly coal gave way to fuel oil and diesel. The modern age of vessel propulsion was born.
Most modern ships use a reciprocating diesel engines, these are relatively simple, robust and offer reasonable fuel economy. One of the biggest leaps in shipping has been the launch of Maersk’s first round of giant container vessels. The Triple-E class container ships, with a container carrying capacity of 18,000TEU. The Triple-E (EEE) stands for economy of scale, energy efficient and environmentally improved vessel.
Each has a twin skeg propulsion system, with two slow running ultra-long stroke engines. Each engine will drive a separate propeller, and produces 43,000hp and weighs 910t. Consuming 168g bunker oil per kWH produced. Each of the two propellers is 9.8m diameter with four blades. While size matters, fuels seems to be the next big battle ground for engines. Much is being made of the use of LNG as a marine fuel, and with pressure to lower emissions and to cut the sulphur content, then it seems that such advances are likely to really take off. If it hadn’t been for recent drops in the price of oil, perhaps these would already be increasingly common. Change is coming though, and the next 100 years will see a further refinement – some expect more electric vessels.
Engineer
Engineers – Engineering Officers operate and maintain all the propulsion, power generation and distribution systems throughout the ship. Seafarers working in the ship’s engine room fall under the engine department. This mainly include marine engineers and ratings responsible for operation and maintenance of ship’s machinery.
The usual hierarchy is as follows:
• Chief Engineer
• Second Engineer
• Third Engineer
• Fourth Engineer
• Fifth Engineer/ Engine Cadet
• Engine Room Rating
• Fitter
• Motorman
• Wiper
• Trainee Fitter / Trainee Wiper
Chief Engineer: The Chief engineer is the senior officer and head of the engineering department. While full responsibility for the ship falls on the Captain’s shoulders, the Chief is a comparable level in seniority. The Chief engineer gives orders for operation and maintenance of ship’s machinery system and is responsible for the engine room department.
Second Engineer: The “Second” is responsible for the day-to-day activities in the engine room, and is accountable to the Chief Engineer. Similar in role to the Chief Officer, the Second Engineer supervises the proper functioning of all engine room machinery systems and also assigns jobs to the other engine officers and crew. All the engine room ratings report to the second engineer.
Third engineer: The “Third” is assigned jobs to look after machinery ordered by the chief engineer, along with daily watch keeping. Reporting directly to the second engineer, the Third is usually a hardened marine engineer who has been dedicated to the role, but often have decided not to pursue a move upwards to Second. The term “professional third engineer” long encapsulated this – however, with an aging maritime population this situation is changing.
Fourth Engineer: This is the most junior officer rank in the engineering department. The Fourth Engineer is concerned about the correct working of the machinery systems and also carry our watch keeping. The Fourth reports to the second engineer, and is the junior watchkeeper.
Fifth Engineer/ Engineering Cadet: Fifth engineer is often a cadet trainee coming to the end of training. Working under the Second Engineer, the Fifth/Cadet will assist and learn while observing and carrying out activities in the engine room.
Another related ranks is that of Electro-Technical Officer (ETO) monitors all onboard electronic and electrical equipment – maximising the operational safety and efficiency of the vessel.
Obviously engineers are a relatively new development – as for centuries vessels were sail powered. So marine engineers do not have the heritage of their deck counterparts, but as sail gave way to steam, they came to the fore. Marine engineers where epaulettes with the usual gold braid – with the Chief having 4 stripes, Second engineer wearing 3, Third wearing 2 and the Fourth Engineer wearing one stripe. The difference from the deck officers is that engineer epaulettes have purple on them.
There are different versions of why engineers use of purple, perhaps the most romantic relates back to when the Titanic sank. When the liner went down in 1912, all the engineers were lost with the ship. Myth has it that King George V decreed that the Royal Purple will be worn from that date on. Sadly however good the story, this is not seemingly the case – the colour was used to denote the fact that for many years engineers were not deemed to be of the same standing as deck officers. It was not until 1902 that the Royal Navy sought to ensure engineers were of an “executive” level and the colour was used to show which department they belonged to, to avoid confusion.
Emergency signal
Emergency Signal – When the worst happens at sea, there are two main concerns. Make sure someone somewhere knows what is happening, and then to make sure people get off the vessel.
In order to achieve these – there needs to be a signal sent out from the ship, and there needs to be one on the ship. For reporting an emergency to authorities a Mayday is issued. This is the emergency procedure word used internationally as a distress signal in voice procedure radio communications by aviators and mariners.The call is always given three times in a row (“Mayday Mayday Mayday”) to prevent its being mistaken for some similar-sounding phrase under noisy conditions, and to distinguish an actual Mayday call from a message about a Mayday call. The Mayday procedure word was originated in 1923, by a senior radio officer at Croydon Airport in London. The officer was asked to think of a word that would indicate distress and would easily be understood by all pilots and ground staff in an emergency.
Since much of the traffic at the time was between France and England, he proposed the word “Mayday” from the French “m’aider”, a shortened version of “venez m’aider” (meaning “come and help me”). Before the voice call “Mayday”, SOS was the Morse code equivalent. Onboard the vessel, the general alarm signal consists of seven or more short blasts followed by one long blast sounded on the ship’s whistle or siren and on a bell, klaxon or similar.
The general alarm is sounded to make aware the crew on board that an emergency has occurred, and they need to make way to their designated muster station.When the emergency situation on board escalates, and the ship is no longer safe. Then the last resort is for the master – or the most senior officer to give a verbal order to “Abandon ship”.
Ensign
Ensign – An ensign is, in its widest sense, a flag or other standard. The term is most commonly used in reference to ships, where the ensign is the largest flag, generally flown at the stern of the ship.
In nautical use, the ensign is flown to indicate its nationality of registration, and can also contain more information – such as whether a civilian, military, or police vessel. As an example, the Red Ensign or “Red Duster” is a flag that originated in the early 17th century as an English ensign flown by the Royal Navy and later specifically by the British Merchant Navy.The precise date of its first appearance is not known, but surviving receipts indicate that the Navy was paying to have such flags sewn during the 1620s.
The three-colour ensign system derives from the squadronal system of the Royal Navy. The Fleet was divided into three squadrons in 1627 under the tactical flags of Red, Blue and White Ensigns, in that order of seniority. The Red Ensign therefore remains the senior flag, the original national colour, while the Blue and White were variants created for organisational purposes.
In 1805 however, the Battle of Trafalgar was fought under the White Ensign. Lord Nelson, Vice Admiral of the White Squadron, decreed that all his ships should wear the White Colours – it is thought because this flag served to distinguish them most effectively from those ships flying the French tricolour.
Under Queen Victoria, the squadronal system was discontinued. Thus the White Ensign was assigned to the Royal Navy, the Blue Ensign to vessels employed by public offices (defaced with the badge or seal of the organisation which flew it), and the Red Ensign to all other British ships (this merely confirming the long-standing use of the Red Ensign as the proper national colours for British merchant ships).
EPIRB
EPIRB – Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon station (short: EPIRS or EPIRB) is – according to Article 1.93 of the International Telecommunication Union’s (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR)[1] – defined as «A station in the mobile service the emissions of which are intended to facilitate search and rescue operations.» In marine use the terminology Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB) is used.
EPIRBs are tracking transmitters which aid in the detection and location of boats, aircraft, and people in distress. The basic purpose of a distress radiobeacon is to help rescuers find survivors within the so-called “golden day”, that is the first 24 hours following a traumatic event. During this time the majority of survivors can usually be saved. Since the inception of Cospas-Sarsat in 1982, distress radiobeacons have assisted in the rescue of tens of thousands of marine casualties – they have saved lives and been a major boost to marine safety.
For a marine EPIRB to begin transmitting a signal (or “activate”) it first needs to come out of its bracket (or “deploy”). Deployment can happen either manually – where someone must physically remove it from its bracket – or automatically – where water pressure will cause a hydrostatic release unit to release the EPIRB from its bracket.
Emergency beacons operating on 406 MHz transmit a unique 15, 22, or 30 character serial number called a Hex Code. When the beacon is purchased, the Hex Code should be registered with the relevant national (or international) authority.
Registration provides Search and Rescue agencies with crucial information such as:
• phone numbers to call,
• a description of the vessel, aircraft, vehicle, or person (in the case of a PLB)
• the home port of a vessel or aircraft
• any additional information that may be useful to SAR agencies
Registration information allows SAR agencies to start a rescue more quickly. For example, if a shipboard telephone number listed in the registration is unreachable, it could be assumed that a real distress event is occurring. Conversely, the information provides a quick and easy way for the SAR agencies to check and eliminate false alarms (potentially sparing the beacon’s owner from significant false alert fines.)
EPIRBs came about after the Norwegian Government in 1968 made contact with selected Norwegian companies to see if there was some interest in developing an alarm system for ships in distress along Norway’s long and dangerous coastline.
At this time, Emergency Locating Transmitters (ELT) were already used in mandatory aircraft safety equipment worldwide, and it was strongly felt that an maritime equivalent was needed. The Norwegian company Jotron recommended the development of a marine ELT, later named “Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon” (EPIRB), and was granted the development contract. The world’s first EPIRB, “Tron 1”, was tested and approved in 1970 – the industry has not looked back since.
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