1523 Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) (Italian artist, c. 1485-1576) Portrait of Laura de'Dianti. She is surely controlling the young slave who reflects her wealth & position in the cosmopolitan society of Venice.
Perhaps "Where did they come from?" is the 1st question to ask about the African children in these 16C - 18C paintings? Slavery had existed in Europe for centuries & did not end with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476. Slaves remained common in Southern Europe from the 5C to the 15C . However, slavery became increasingly uncommon in Northern Europe &, by the 11C & 12C, slavery had been nearly abolished in the North.
In Southern & Eastern Europe, slavery remained a normal part of everyday life as part of the general economy & as a symbol of status & prestige. Slave trade across the Mediterranean & along the Atlantic seaboard brought African slaves to Italy, Spain, Southern France, & Portugal well before the formal "discovery" of the New World by the Europeans in 1492.
From about the 8C onwards, an Arab-run slave trade also flourished, with much of this activity taking place in East Africa, Arabia, & the Indian Ocean. And many African societies themselves had forms of slavery, although these differed both from each other & from the European & Arabic models. The European form of chattel slavery, in which slaves are commodities to be bought & sold, became the most common form of slavery in the modern Western world.
1530s Paris Bordone (Italian painter, 1500-1571) Portrait of a Man in Armor with Two Pages. This moody portrait fits into a long tradition of military men in armor. The inclusion of an African page could refer to the exotic travels of the high ranking officer.
1530s 1 Paris Bordone (Italian painter, 1500-1571) Portrait of a Man in Armor with Two Pages Detail
1441: Regular European slave trading in Africa begins, as Portuguese captains Antão Gonçalves & Nuno Tristão capture 12 Africans in Cabo Branco (modern Mauritania) taking them to Portugal as slaves.
1444: Lançarote de Freitas, a tax-collector from the Portuguese town of Lagos, forms a company to trade with Africa, & brings 235 kidnapped Africans into Lagos, the 1st large group of African slaves brought to Europe.
1452: Start of the sugar-slave system. Sugar is first planted on the Portuguese island of Madeira & African slaves are put to work on the sugar plantations.
1454: Pope Nicholas V issues Romanus Pontifex, a bull granting the Portuguese a perpetual monopoly in trade with Africa. But, soon Spanish traders begin to bring slaves from Africa to Spain.
1462: The Portuguese colony on the Cape Verde Islands is founded, and becomes an important way-station in the slave trade.
1462: Portuguese slave traders start to sell their captives in Seville, Spain.
1470s: Despite Papal opposition, Spanish merchants begin to trade in large numbers of slaves.
1600s Unknown Artist. German. Courtly Lady with Moor boy
It is impossible to know if the young Blacks in these paintings are enslaved. But as a member of an aristocrat's household staff, most young slaves & servants probably would have received instruction in social graces, fine clothing & food, & most likely would have a marriage arranged at some point. In England, a page was basically an apprentice footman. The footmen would have everyday contact with the family. When they were not out & about with family members, they would have been serving at the first table under the butler & under-butler, carrying, & serving beverages.
1640 Gilbert Jackson (English artist, active 1621-1642) Daughter of Florence Poulette & Thomas Smyth. This is the earliest English painting of an African child page I could find. Florence Smyth, b.1634, daughter of Thomas & Florence Smyth of Ashton Court, with her black page, around 1640. The portrait reportedly once hung at Ashton Court Mansion. The Smyths were a prominent local merchant family from the 16C. Thomas Smyth played a small part at the beginning of the war on the royalist side. The Smyth household was a bustling one - they had 3 sons & 6 daughters, & 29 servants including a jester. The little girl is accompanied by an African slave page who holds a nest of robins. It was fashionable to have African house servants in the 17C & 18C, and children were sometimes given their own African playmate. This is an early, important image of an African presence in Bristol. The figures are painted to contrast sharply visually, perhaps to illustrate the contrast the exotic native life of the slave as the antithesis of the cultured life of the child.
1476: Carlos de Valera of Castille in Spain brings back 400 slaves from Africa.
1481: A Portuguese embassy delegation to the court of King Edward IV of England concludes with the English government agreeing not to enter the slave trade, against the wishes of many English traders.
1486: Portuguese settle the West African island of São Tomé. This uninhabited West African island is planted with sugar & populated by African slaves by the Portuguese. The settlement thus extended the sugar-slave complex that had been initiated in Madeira.
1492: Granada surrenders to the Spanish forces of the Catholic Kings, Ferdinand & Isabella, marking the end of La Reconquista, the war between Moors & Spaniards in the Iberian peninsular. Both sides retain many slaves taken during the course of the war.
1492: Christopher Columbus becomes the 1st known European since the Viking era to "discover" the New World, setting foot on an island he named San Salvador (modern Bahamas).
1493: On his 2nd voyage, Columbus again reaches the New World (modern Dominica). On this voyage he initiates the first transatlantic slave voyage, a shipment of several hundred Taino people sent from Hispaniola to Spain.
1493: Columbus founds the first European colony in the New World: La Isabela on the island of Hispaniola (modern Dominican Republic).
1496: Columbus returns from his 2nd voyage, carrying around 30 Native American slaves.
1499: More than 200 slaves taken from the northern coast of South America by Amerigo Vespucci & Alonso de Hojeda are sold in Cádiz.
1623 Anthony van Dyke (1599-1641) Marchesa Elena Grimaldi
During the first half of the 1500s, Africa became a focus of European attention. The European thirst for new markets in the mid 1400s drove the Portuguese (& subsequently the English & Dutch) to explore the establishment of new trading routes down the west coast of Africa &, by the turn of the new century, into the Indian Ocean. At the same time, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in North Africa brought the Turks into military & political conflict with European interests. These elements, along with the importation of captured Africans as slaves, primarily from West Africa, increasingly supplanting the trade of slaves of Slavic origin, resulted in a growing African presence in Europe. Before 1700, the Dutch were establishing their power on the West African coast, & slaves were replacing gold as the major Dutch commodity. The slave became the new symbol of power & prestige.
1633 Anthony van Dyke (1599-1641) William Feilding, 1st Earl of Denbigh (1582-1643).
1633 Anthony van Dyke (1599-1641) William Feilding, 1st Earl of Denbigh (1582-1643). Detail
1502: Juan de Córdoba of Seville becomes the 1st identified merchant to send an African slave to the New World.
1505: First record of sugar cane being grown in the New World, in Santo Domingo (modern Dominican Republic).
1510: The systematic transportation of African slaves to the New World begins as King Ferdinand of Spain authorizes a shipment of 50 African slaves to Santo Domingo.
1516: the governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, authorises slave-raiding expeditions to Central America. One group of slaves aboard a Spanish caravel rebel & kill the Spanish crew before sailing home.
1518: Charles V grants his Flemish courtier Lorenzo de Gorrevod permission to import 4000 African slaves into New Spain. From this time onwards thousands of slaves are sent to the New World each year.
1522: A major slave rebellion breaks out on the island of Hispaniola. This is the first significant uprising of African slaves. After this, slave resistance becomes widespread & uprisings common.
1524: 300 African slaves taken to Cuba to work in the gold mines.
1640s Nicholas van Helt (Dutch artist, 1614-1669) Portrait of two Children as Hunters In a Garden
Portraits of aristocrats began including black servants to suggest the universal reach of imperial power. Africans became powerless shadow adjuncts in the margins of the portraits of the aristocrats. Sometimes they symbolized the life journey of the sitter, who may have actually been to Africa. Or, they could be seen as exotic decoration replacing the usual dog or flower or bird or monkey. Or they could be seen as a symbol of power in European paintings. The slave had become the new symbol of prestige & wealth in society.
1648 Frans Hals. Belgium Family Group in a Landscape
1648 Frans Hals. Belgium Family Group in a Landscape. Detail
1526: Hieronymous Seiler and Heinrich Ehinger of Konstanz become the first Germans known involved in the slave trade.
1527: The earliest records of sugar production in Jamaica, later a major sugar producing region of the British Empire. Sugar production is rapidly expanding throughout the Caribbean region - with the mills almost exclusivly worked by African slaves.
1530: Juan de la Barrera, a Seville merchant, begins transporting slaves directly from Africa to the New World (before this, slaves had normally passed through Europe 1st).
1532: Martim Afonso de Souza founds the 1st Portuguese colony in Brazil at São Vicente. Sugar production begins almost immediately.
1555: A small group of Africans from Shama (modern Ghana) described as slaves are brought to London by John Lok, a London merchant eager to break into the African trade.
1556: The Italian city of Genoa tries to prevent trading in slaves - not for any humanitarian reasons - but in an attempt to reduce the numbers of Africans in the city.
1562: John Hawkins of Plymouth becomes the first known English sailor to have obtained African slaves - approximately 300 of them in Sierra Leone - for sale in the West Indies.
1571: The Parlement of Bordeaux sets all slaves - "blacks and moors" - in the town free, declaring slavery illegal in France.
1650 Unknown English artist, Young Girl with Basket of Fruit
There is record of the trade in black African slaves in 15C Florence. The percentage of East European slaves in North Italian cities was quite significant by the end of the 14C, mainly in Genoa (nearly 10%) due to the Genoese trading communities in the Black Sea, but the fall of Contantinople in 1453 ended this commercial exchange. The slave trade in black Africans spread throughout the 15C, replacing the previous trade. Networks also changed, from Arab merchants to Portuguese ones. In Italy, the changing policies of the Popes from Martin V to Paul III was confusing to the Italians, with successive bulls prohibiting the African slave trade (1425) & black slavery (1462), then allowing the trade with captive people (1455, 1456, 1493), & finally condemning the enslavement of native American people (1537), while the citizens of Rome were authorized to hold slaves (1548).
Africans are described in Tudor parish records in England from 1558 (when most official records began) until well into the 17th century by terms such as “Blackamoores”, “Neygers”, “Aethiopians” and “Negroes." These Africans were baptised, buried & recorded in parish records in London, Plymouth, Southampton, Barnstaple, Bristol, Leicester, Northampton & other communities across England.
1660-65 Peter Lely (English artist, 1618-1680) Lady Elizabeth Noel Wriothesley
1575: Paulo Dias de Novães founds the Portuguese colony of São Paulo de Luanda in Africa (modern Angola). The colony soon became a major slave-trading port supplying the vast Brazilian market.
1579: Union of Utrecht, the northern provinces of the Low Countries unite to create a Calvinist republic free from Spanish rule. The United Provinces (modern Netherlands) soon becomes an important slave-trading nation.
1580: Following the death of King Henry of Portugal, Spain & Portugal are united under Philip II of Spain. Spain thus becomes the most important colonial power & the largest participant in the slave trade.
1592: Bernard Ericks becomes the 1st known Dutch slave trader.
1594: L'Espérance of La Rochelle becomes the first identified French ship positively identified as participating in the slave trade. However, French merchants may have been involved in small scale slave trading since the 1540s.
1595: Philip II of Spain grants Pedro Gomes Reinal, a Portuguese merchant, a near monopoly in the slave trade. Reinal agrees to provide Spanish America with 4250 African slaves annually, with an additional 1000 slaves being provided by agreements with other merchants.
1596: Queen Elizabeth I of England sends a letter complaining that "there are of late divers blackmoores brought into this realme, of which kinde of people there are allready here to manie ... Her Majesty's pleasure therefore ys that those kinde of people should be sent forth of the lande". Accordingly, a group of slaves were rounded up & given to a German slave trader, Caspar van Senden, in "payment" for duties he had performed.
And yet, Elizabeth I also had at least one African in her personal entourage – “a Blackamoore boy,” who is mentioned in a warrant dated 14 April 1574. The warrant states that the queen ordered the clothes-maker Henry Henre to make the African boy a “garcon coat… of white taphata cutt and lyned… striped with gold and silver with buckeram bayes… knitted stockings [and] white shoes,” This boy was employed until at least the following April, when a further warrant granted this “littel black a More” another set of fine clothing.
1651 Peter Lely (English artist, 1618-1680) Elizabeth Murray, Lady Tollemache
1651a Peter Lely (English artist, 1618-1680) Elizabeth Murray, Lady Tollemache. Detail
1601: The Jesuits build their 1st sugar mill in Brazil.
1612: The 1st permanent British colony is founded in Bermuda.
1617: First records of slaves in Bermuda.
1621: Dutch West India Company chartered granting a monopoly to trade in the Caribbean. (Dutch slave traders had been operating with varying degrees of success since about 1600.)
1625: Foundation of the Danish West India Company.
1647: Foundation of the Swedish African Company.
1658 Unknown artist of the Anglo Dutch School
1660: The newly restored King Charles II of England charters the 'Royal Adventurers into Africa,' the 1st English state-sponsored slave trading company.
About 1660 Queen Mary Stuart dressed up as an American, or an Indian or in Turquerie.
1664: The French Company of the Isles of America is replaced by the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales (West India Company).
1672: The Royal Adventurers into Africa, founded in 1660, is restructured & given a new charter as The Royal African Company. The company remains England's major slave-trading organization into the 1730s.
1673: The French West India Company is replaced by the Compagnie du Sénégal (Senegal Company). Under various name changes, this remains the main French slave trading company into the 1720s.
1660 Gaspar Smits - portrait of a boy ca.1660 - possibly John Arundell 2nd Baron Arundell of Trerice
1606: The First Charter of the British American colony of Virginia with settlement at Jamestown a year later.
1619: Twenty Africans, 17 men & 3 women, are brought by a Dutch ship to Jamestown for sale as indentured servants, marking the beginning of slavery in colonial British America.
1628: Slavery is introduced into Manhattan by the Dutch.
1636: The British American colony of Massachusettes launches the 1st American-built slave carrier, Desire.
1665 Jan Johannes Mijtens (1614-1670) Portret van Maria, prinses van Oranje (1642-1688)
1639: The first law to exclude "Negroes" from normal protections by the British American colony of Virginia government was enacted.
1640: New Netherlands forbids residents from harboring or feeding runaway slaves.
1641: The British American colony of Massachusettes legalizes slavery
1643: The British American New England Confederation of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, & New Haven adopt a fugitive slave law.
1675 Pieter Nason (Dutch artist, c 1612-1688-90) Johan Maurits Count of Nassau-Siegen (1604-1679); known as "the Brazilian" 1604-1679 He was appointed as the governor of the Dutch possessions in Brazil in 1636, by the Dutch West India Company, whose business was African slaves. In 1621, the Dutch West India Company chartered granting a monopoly to trade in the Caribbean. Dutch slave traders had been operating with varying degrees of success since about 1600. In 1664, he came back to Holland; when war broke out with an England, he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Dutch States Army.
1675 Pieter Nason (Dutch artist, c 1612-1688-90) Johan Maurits Count of Nassau-Siegen (1604-1679); known as "the Brazilian" 1604-1679 Detail
1644: A group of 11 enslaved people in New Amsterdam (modern-day New York) successfully petition the government there for what is the first group manumission in a North American colony.
1650: Slave Francis Payne of the British American colony of Northampton County, Virginia, paid for his freedom by purchasing 3 white servants for his master's use.
1652: The British American colony of Rhode Island enacts the first law restricting slavery in the colonies declaring slavery illegal for more than 10 years.
1652: The British American colony of Massachusettes requires all black & Indian male servants to receive military training
1654: The British American colony of Virginia court allows African Americans to hold slaves.
1668 Jan Johannes Mijtens (1614-1670) Portrait of Margaretha van Raephorst
1655: Elizabeth Key, daughter of a slave, sues for her freedom and wins in the British American colony of Virginia.
1657: The British American colony of Virginia passes a fugitive slave law
1658: Charles II, King of England, orders the Council of Foreign Plantations to devise strategies for converting slaves & servants to Christianity.
Gonzales Coques (Flemish Baroque Era Painter, ca.1615-1684) Family in Garden Landscape
1660s: The 1st native Africans brought to the British American colony of Virginia in 1619. They were hired, with rights of contract, for work on large plantations of tobacco, rice, & indigo. By the 1660s, plantation owners change the laws & revoke contracts, so that African men, women, & children cannot earn their freedom.
1668 Peter Lely (English artist, 1618-1680) Lady Charlotte Fitzroy with Indian page
1662: The British American colony of Virginia General Assembly declares children of enslaved women to be slaves.
1662: The British American colony of Massachusetts reverses a ruling dating back to 1652, which allowed blacks to train in arms. New York, Connecticut, & New Hampshire pass similar laws restricting the bearing of arms.
1663: In the British American colony of Gloucester County, Virginia, the 1st documented slave rebellion in the colonies takes place.
1633: The British American colony of Maryland legalizes slavery.
1670s Jan Verkolje (I) (1650-1693) Portrait of Johan de la Faille
1678 Georg Adam Eberhard Portrait of Franziska Sibylla Augusta von Sachsen-Lauenburg
1664: The British American colony of Maryland is the 1st colony to take legal action against marriages between white women & black men. The 1st colonial "anti-amalgamation" law is enacted (amalgamation referred to "race-mixing"). Other colonies soon followed Maryland's example.
1664: The British American colony of Maryland mandates lifelong servitude for all black slaves. New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, & Virginia all pass similar laws
1665: Legislation in several states tightens the bonds of slavery. English law provides that slaves may be freed if they convert to Christianity & establish legal residence, but the British American colony of Maryland, New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, & Virginia pass laws allowing conversion & residence without freeing any slaves.
1680 Francois de Troy (1645-1730) Lieselotte von der Pfalz
1666: The British American colony of Maryland passes a fugitive slave law.
1667: The British American colony of Virginia declares that Christian baptism will not alter a man or a woman's status as a slave. Christian baptisms would no longer affect the bondage of blacks or Indians, preventing enslaved workers from improving their legal status by changing their religion.
1667: The British American colony of New Jersey passes a fugitive slave law.
1670: The British American colony of Virginia prohibits free blacks & Indians from keeping Christian (i.e. white) servants.
1682 Pierre Mignard (French artist, 1612- 1695) Louise de Kéroualle, Duchess of Portsmouth (1649-1734), Mistress of Charles II. This portrait was painted in Paris during a visit by the duchess in the first half of 1682. The servant child holding coral & a shell filled with pearls is unidentified.
1685-95 The Indian Queen (Anne Bracegirdle) by William Vincent, published by John Smith
1674: New York declares that blacks who convert to Christianity after their enslavement will not be freed.
1680: The British American colony of Virginia forbids free blacks & slaves from bearing arms; prohibits blacks from congregating in large numbers; & mandates harsh punishment for slaves who assault Christians or attempt escape.
1682: The British American colony of Virginia declares all imported African American servants to be slaves for life. A law establishing the racial distinction between indentured servants & slaves was enacted.
1687 Anton Domenico Gabbiani Italian Portrait of three Musicians of the Medici Court
1687a Anton Domenico Gabbiani Italian Portrait of three Musicians of the Medici Court. Detail
1684: New York makes it illegal for slaves to sell goods.
1688: Quakers in the British American colony of Pennsylvania issue a formal resolution against slavery of men & women in America.
1688: The Germantown Protest, The German Mennonite Resolution against Slavery, the 1st formal protest against slavery in the British American colonies, is delivered in Pennsylvania.
1690s Philippe Vignon (1638-1701)Francoise-Marie de Bourbon, Duchesse d'Orléans, 2nde Mademoiselle de Blois (1677-1749) and Sister
1691 Frances Coningsby (née Jones), Lady Coningsby Lady Catherine Jones by John Smith, published by Edward Cooper, after Jan van der Vaart, after William Wissing
1691: The British American colony of South Carolina passes the first comprehensive slave codes
1691: The British American colony of Virginia passes the first anti-miscegenation law, forbidding marriages between whites & blacks or whites & Native Americans. And Virginia prohibits the manumission of slaves within its borders. Manumitted slaves are forced to leave the colony. The law declared that any white man or woman who married a "Negro, mulatto, or Indian" would be banished from the colony forever.
1694: Rice cultivation is introduced into Carolina. Slave importation increases dramatically.
1696: The Royal African Trade Company loses its slave trade monopoly, spurring colonists in The British American colonies of New England to engage in trading male & female slaves for profit.
1697 Jan Weenix (1640-1719) Portrait of Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans
1700: The British American colony of Pennsylvania legalizes slavery.
1702: The British American colony of New York passes An Act for Regulating Slaves prohibiting more than 3 slaves from meeting together; slaves from testifying in court; & trading by slaves.
1703: The British American colony of Connecticut assigns the punishment of whipping to any slaves who disturb the peace or assault whites.
1703: The British American colony of Rhode Island makes it illegal for blacks & Indians to walk at night without passes.
1705: The British American colony of Virginia Slave Code codifies slave status, declaring all non-Christian servants entering the colony to be slaves. It defines all slaves as real estate; acquits masters who kill slaves during punishment; forbids slaves & free blacks from physically assaulting white persons: & denies slaves the right to bear arms or move abroad without written permission.
1705: The British American colony of New York, passes a law against runaway slaves assigns the death penalty for those caught over 40 miles north of Albany.
1705: The British American colony of Massachusetts declares marriage between African Americans & whites illegal.
1706: The British American colony of Connecticut requires that Indians, mulattos, & black servants gain permission from their masters to engage in trade.
1697 Pierre Gobert (1662-1744) Portrait of Élisabeth Charlotte d'Orléans as Venus about to bind the wings of Cupid.
1700 Sir Charles Napier, 2nd Bt by and published by John Smith, after J. Sommer
1702 Mary (Somerset), Duchess of Ormonde by and published by John Smith, after Sir Godfrey Kneller
1702-10 Queen Anne by and published by Jacob Gole, after Unknown artist
Portraits of Black Servants in colonial British America
Early in the 18C, the 1st master & slave portrait appeared in the British American colonies. It is presently assumed, that the 1710 Justus Engelhardt Kuhn (fl 1707-1717) painting of Henry Darnall III is the first. For years when I worked at the Maryland Historical Society, I would walk by the Kuhn portrait of Henry which hung next to Kuhn's painting of his sister. She was standing in front of fantasy gardens with Catholic references, but she was posed with a dog. Why was she with a dog, and he with another person, a young slave?
1710 Justus Engelhardt Kuhn fl 1707-1717 Eleanor Darnall 1704-1796
The following portrait of Henry is symbolic of the new colony of America, where the acquisition of money, land, & power would no longer depend on traditional European family ties. It is a portrait of two young men, not of established aristocrats. It is a portrait of two males, the power-makers of the new colony. They are engaged in hunting for food, the most basic aspect of maintaining life. It is not a depiction of an ornamental slave, but an image of a partner who will help shape the New World. Fifty years later in 1760, John Hesselius (1728-1778) would create the 2nd portrait of a slave & his young partner-master Charles Calvert.
1710 Justus Engelhardt Kuhn (Colonial American artist, fl 1707-1717) Henry Darnall III
Of course, in both colonial British American paintings of a young slave & his master in 18C America, the child slave is presented as an inferior, obedient partner & protector rather than as the antithesis of the cultured life of the child of the established landed gentry. The viewer of the Kuhn portrait is reminded of the slave's status by the silver collar on the boy's neck. But these young slaves are not shown in the reality of the majority of their colonial American kin, in dehumanizing field labor. The slave in these colonial portraits is not just a decorative ornament, he is the means to the aspirations of the family that appear in the garden background. These American landowners would have to create their own self-made aristocracy & power social status, & they would need slave labor to do that. The gardens point to the Darnell family's aspiration for the grandeur of European culture & estates.
1760 John Hesselius (Colonial American artist, 1728-1778). Charles Calvert, Eldest Son Of Benedict Swingate Calvert
Returning to portraits of black servants & slaves in 18C Europe...
These paintings include British paintings from throughout the 18C. After 1772, slavery in Britain became less popular. This change in attitude was spurred by a 1772 court case, in which Somerset, a fugitive enslaved African, brought suit against his owner who was attempting to force him to return to the West Indies. Lord Justice Mansfield ruled, that it would be illegal to remove the slave Somerset from the country against his wishes. This case began to extend the rights of enslaved Africans in Britain & including such servants in family portraits became less socially acceptable.
1700 Unknown artist, Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici holding a miniature of her husband the Elector Palatine
1700-05 Unknown artist, Portrait of John Chardin (1643-1713) Chardin, the son of a wealthy merchant jeweller, was born in Paris, where he followed in his father's trade. The young African page holding the world map probably refers to Chardin's world travels, which included sailing around Africa's Cape of Good Hope. In 1664-70, Chardin traveled as a jewel merchant through Turkey to Persia & India and, on his return to Paris, published an account of his experiences as the jewel agent of Solyman III. Chardin made his 2nd visit to the East in 1671; and, 6 years later, returned to Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope. He went on to publish 3 volumes detailing his experiences. In 1681, Chardin moved to London in order to escape the persecution of Protestants in France & was soon after appointed court jeweler. This portrait of him is likely to have been painted in London.
1700-20 Giuseppe Maria (Italian artist, 1665-1747) Count Fulvio Grati 1700-1720
1700s Antoine Pesne (1683-1757) Frederick the Great as a child with his sister Wilhelmine
1700s copy of Jean-Baptiste Andree Gautier-Dogoty (1740-1786) Portrait of Madame du Barry (1743-1793)
1700s Ivan Adolsky. Catherine I of Russia (1684-1727)
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